Psychology Exam 1

CHAPTER 1 — PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Psychology → The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior → Anything an organism does that can be observed.

Mental processes → Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, memories, and perceptions.

Critical thinking → Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments or conclusions; instead, it examines evidence and considers alternative explanations.

Empiricism → The idea that knowledge comes from experience and observation.

Structuralism → An early school of psychology that attempted to identify the basic elements of conscious experience.

Functionalism → An early school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function and help organisms adapt.

Wilhelm Wundt → Founded the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.

G. Stanley Hall → Established the first psychology laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association.

William James → American psychologist associated with functionalism who emphasized the purpose of thoughts and behaviors.

Mary Whiton Calkins → Student of William James who became an important early psychologist and the first female president of the American Psychological Association.

Margaret Floy Washburn → First woman to earn a psychology PhD and an important early researcher in comparative psychology.

Sigmund Freud → Developed psychoanalysis and emphasized the influence of unconscious thoughts and experiences.

Behaviorism → The view that psychology should focus on observable behavior and how the environment shapes it.

John B. Watson → Helped establish behaviorism and argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior.

B. F. Skinner → Major behaviorist who studied how consequences influence behavior.

Humanistic psychology → An approach emphasizing human potential, personal growth, free will, and the importance of conscious experience.

Carl Rogers → Humanistic psychologist who emphasized acceptance, personal growth, and the importance of a supportive environment.

Abraham Maslow → Humanistic psychologist known for his hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive psychology → The study of mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and perception.

Cognitive neuroscience → The study of brain activity linked to mental processes.

Psychodynamic psychology → An approach that emphasizes unconscious motives, conflicts, and early experiences.

Behavioral neuroscience → The study of how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics influence behavior.

Evolutionary psychology → The study of how natural selection and evolution influence behavior and mental processes.

Social-cultural psychology → The study of how other people, groups, and cultures influence behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial approach → An approach that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences together.

Nature-nurture issue → The question of how much behavior comes from genetic factors versus environmental experiences.

Psychological perspective → A particular way of explaining behavior and mental processes.

Basic research → Research conducted to increase knowledge and understanding.

Applied research → Research designed to solve practical problems.

Clinical psychology → The study and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Counseling psychology → A field focused on helping people deal with challenges and improve well-being.

Psychiatry → A medical specialty focused on diagnosing and treating mental disorders.

Psychologist → A professional who studies behavior and mental processes and may provide psychological services depending on training and licensure.

Positive psychology → The scientific study of human flourishing, strengths, happiness, and factors that help people thrive.

CHAPTER 2 — RESEARCH METHODS

Scientific method → A systematic approach for observing, describing, predicting, and explaining behavior.

Theory → An organized set of principles that explains observations and helps generate predictions.

Hypothesis → A testable prediction.

Operational definition → A precise description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

Replication → Repeating research to see whether the original findings can be reproduced.

Case study → An in-depth examination of one individual or a small group.

Naturalistic observation → Observing behavior in its natural environment without interfering.

Survey → A method of collecting information by asking people questions about their attitudes or behaviors.

Random sample → A sample in which every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

Population → The entire group that a researcher wants to study.

Correlation → A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.

Positive correlation → Two variables tend to increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation → As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.