Sociology midterm 1 pt 2

Sociology

The systematic, scientific study of society and human behavior.

Society

A group of people who share a culture and a territory.

Social location

The positions people occupy due to age, gender, class, and other social categories.

Positivism

Auguste Comte’s belief that knowledge should come from scientific observation.

Generalization

Applying a finding beyond the individual case to a broader group.

Sociological imagination

C. Wright Mills’ idea that personal troubles are connected to larger social issues.

Emile Durkheim

Studied suicide; argued it is influenced by social integration.

Macro sociology

Study of large-scale systems like institutions or class.

Micro sociology

Study of small-scale interactions like conversations.

Structural functionalism

Sees society as a system with interrelated parts that work together.

Conflict theory

Focuses on inequality and power struggles; based on Karl Marx.

Symbolic interactionism

Focuses on meaning and symbols in everyday interactions.

Feminist theory

Analyzes gender inequality and promotes intersectional analysis.

Externalization

Stage in social construction of reality where norms are created.

Objectivation

Norms and institutions become seen as natural or real.

Internalization

People absorb and live according to social norms and expectations.

Hawthorne Effect

People change behavior when they know they’re being studied.

Informed consent

Research participants must be fully informed and voluntarily agree.

IRB

Institutional Review Board; ensures ethical research practices.

Hypothesis

A testable statement derived from a theory.

Structured interview

Uses closed-ended questions for consistent responses.

Participant observation

Researcher joins a group to observe behavior.

Survey

A research method using questionnaires to gather data.

Ethnography

Long-term, in-depth observation of a group or culture.

Culture

The language, beliefs, norms, and material items shared by a group.

Material culture

Physical objects created and used by a society.

Nonmaterial culture

Symbolic aspects of culture like values and language.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by your own cultural standards.

Cultural relativism

Understanding another culture on its own terms.

Signs

Direct indicators like traffic signs.

Symbols

Culturally assigned meanings like flags or wedding rings.

Language

A system of symbols used for communication.

Gestures

Body movements that carry cultural meaning.

Values

Ideas about what is good and desirable in a society.

Norms

Expected rules of behavior in a society.

Folkways

Informal norms not strictly enforced.

Mores

Strong norms tied to moral beliefs; breaking them causes disapproval.

Taboos

Extremely strong norms; violation causes disgust.

Sanctions

Reactions to norm-following or breaking—can be rewards or punishments.

Cultural universals

Traits found in all human societies (e.g., language, funerals).

Subculture

Group with distinct values within the dominant culture.

Counterculture

Group that rejects and opposes the dominant culture.

Socialization

The process of learning culture and social norms.

Nature vs. nurture

The debate between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).

Feral children

Children raised with little or no human interaction.

Agents of socialization

People and institutions that teach social norms (e.g., family, school).

Hidden curriculum

Unintended lessons taught in schools, like obedience or patriotism.

Looking-glass self

Cooley’s idea that we form our identity by imagining how others see us.

Role-taking

Mead’s theory that we learn to see ourselves through others’ perspectives.

Gender map

Cultural blueprint for how boys and girls are expected to behave.

Resocialization

Learning new norms and values for a new environment.

Total institution

A place where people are isolated and controlled (e.g., prison).

Social structure

The organized pattern of relationships and institutions in society.

Status

A social position (e.g., student, doctor).

Ascribed status

Status you are born into (e.g., age, race).

Achieved status

Status you earn (e.g., degree holder, employee).

Master status

Status that dominates all others (e.g., disability, fame).

Role

Expected behavior of a status.

Role conflict

Clashing expectations from two or more roles.

Dramaturgy

Goffman’s idea that social life is like a stage performance.

Impression management

Controlling how others perceive you.

Primary group

Small, close-knit group (e.g., family).

Secondary group

Larger, task-focused group (e.g., coworkers).

Reference group

A group you compare yourself to for self-evaluation.

In-group

A group you identify with.

Out-group

A group you feel rivalry or opposition toward.

Authoritarian leadership

Gives orders and expects compliance.

Democratic leadership

Encourages participation and consensus.

Laissez-faire leadership

Hands-off, allows group to self-direct.

Solomon Asch

Conducted conformity experiment showing peer pressure’s influence.

Bureaucracy

A formal organization with hierarchy and rules.

Max Weber

Sociologist who studied bureaucracy and rationalization.

Iron cage

Weber’s term for the dehumanizing effects of bureaucratic rationality.

McDonaldization

Ritzer’s theory that society is becoming standardized like fast food.

Iron law of oligarchy

Michels’ idea that all organizations become dominated by elites.

Hunter-gatherer society

Nomadic society with no surplus or classes.

Horticultural society

Uses hand tools for small-scale farming.

Agricultural society

Uses plows and animals; leads to surplus and inequality.

Industrial society

Uses machines; increases urbanization and specialization.

Postindustrial society

Based on knowledge and services rather than goods.

Jared Diamond

Historian who linked societal development to geographic advantages.