Biology 181 Test 3-Phylogeny and Biodiversity

John Ray

the man who developed a modern definition of the word "species"

Carl Linnaeus

"Father of Taxonomy"; established his classification of living things; famous for animal naming system of binomial nomenclature

Species Name

Genus + epithet(species)

Higher Taxonomic Names

Canidae, Reptilia, Homonidae, etc

Taxonomic Classification Levels

Domain->Kingdom->Phylum->Class->Order->Family->Genus->Species

Taxonomy

How living things are classified

Taxon

Group of any rank, such as a species, family, or class

Taxa

Ideally, monophyletic (all the descendants from a common ancestor)

Phylogeny

Study of evolutionary history and relationships of a species or group of species.

Monophyletic

A taxon that consists of a most recent common ancestor and all its descendants

Paraphyletic

A taxon that consists of a most recent common ancestor and some of its descendants

Polyphyletic

A taxon that consists of unrelated organisms who are from a different recent common ancestor. This group lacks a most recent common ancestor

Synapomorphy

shared derived character

Data used to make phylogenetic trees

-Fossil Records
-Morphology
-Physiology
-Behavior
-Embryological development
-DNA/RNA sequences

Cladistics

Reconstructs phylogenetic tress by considering various evolutionary pathways

Clade

Group of evolutionary ancestors and descendants of a common ancestor

Sister Clades

Clades that share an immediate common ancestor; two clades that are each other's closest relatives

Cladogram

Diagram showing evolutionary relationships among organisms

phylogenetic tree

diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor; resembles a tree

Homology

traits inherited by two different organisms from a common ancestor

Ancestral Trait

in ancestor of group; may be retained or changed in descendants

Derived Traits

newly evolved features that do not appear in the common ancestors

Homoplasies

features shared between species that were not inherited from a common ancestor

Principle of Parsimony

Preferred explanation of observed data is the simplest explanation

Characteristics used to Classify Organisms

-Life Cycles
-Extraembryonic Membranes
-Excretory Product
-Temperature Regulation
-Skull Types

Haploid

One set of chromosomes (n)

Diploid

Two sets of chromosomes (2n)

Gametes

Sex cells (haploid)

Gametophyte

Gamete-producing structure

Meiosis

cell division process; yields haploid gamete or spores

Mitosis

cell division process; yields identical cells

Spore

A tiny cell that is able to grow into a new organism

Sporophyte

The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces spores.

Alternation of Generations

the alternation between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte in a plant's life cycle

Fish & Amphibian Eggs

Eggs laid in water, no special water-filled enclosure (non-amniotes)

Reptile & Bird Eggs

Shelled Egg

Mammal Eggs

Marsupial and placental (eutherian) uterus

Eutherian

Placental mammal

Amniotes

their embryos are protected by extraembryonic membranes

Amnion

Protects embryo in a sac filled with amniotic fluid

Yolk Sac

Contains yolk; sole source of food until hatching

Allantois

Stores metabolic wastes of the embryo

Chorion

lines inner surface of shell & participates in the gas exchange between embryo and outside air

Fish Excretory Product

Ammonia

Mammal, Amphibian, & Shark Excretory Product

Urea

Birds, Insects, & Many Reptiles Excretory Product

Uric Acid

Endotherms

Warm-blooded animals; get heat from metabolic activities within the body

Ectotherms

Cold-blooded animals; get heat from the external environment

Homeotherms

Keep body temperature constant

Heterotherms

Allow body temperature to fluctuate

Synapsids

Mammals, one temporal fenestrae

Sauropsids

anapsids and diapsids

Anapsids

no temporal fenestrae (turtles)

Diapsids

two temporal fenestrae

Three Domain System

Domains Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya.

Eukaryotic Kingdoms

Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

Bacteria & Archaea

single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus; prokaryotes

Prokaryote Reproduction

asexual binary fission

Plasmids

Small circular DMA molecules within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently

Animal Body Plans

-number of tissue types in embryos
-type of body symmetry
-degree of cephalization
-presence or absence of fluid-filled cavity
-the way early development proceeds

Diploblasts

two germ layers: ectoderms and endoderms. Cnidaria & Ctenophora

Triploblasts

three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Adult echinoderms

Body Cavity

A fluid-containing space between the digestive tract and the body wall.

Coelem

fluid-filled body cavity lined with mesoderm

Aceolomates

organisms without a ceolem. Flatworms

Pseudocoelomate

An animal whose body cavity is not completely lined by mesoderm

Protostomes

mouth develops first, arthropods, mollusks, annelids

Deuterostomes

anus develops first, Chordata phylum, echinoderms

Phylum Chordata

vertebrates

Mycelia fungi

compromised of hyphae, have cell walls mainly of chitin

Fungi

Heterotrophs that acquire nutrients by absorption

Decomposing Fungi

Absorb nutrients from nonliving organisms

Parasite Fungi

Absorb nutrients from living host's cells

Specialized Hyphae

modified for predation

Haustoria

appendage or portion of a parasitic fungus that penetrates host's tissue and draws nutrients from it

Mycorrihaze Fungi

Hyphae of certain fungi and roots of most seed plants that absorbs nutrients

Chytridiomycota: Chytrids

Common in freshwater environments; Have enzymes that digest cellulose so they are important decomposers of plant tissue; can live in the guts of herbivores to help digest their food; have a flagellated stage called a zoospore that produces and holds spores

Zygomycota: Zygote Fungi

Soil dwellers (lakes and wet soils); Comprise the common bread molds and fruit rots; are decomposers, parasites, and mutualists; form zygospores that are resistant to harsh conditions; can form mycorrhizal associations

Glomeromycota: Mycorrhizal fungi

Mycorrhizal fungi; 90% of plants have relationships with these fungi and need them to exist: increase surface area and protecting the roots

Asomycota: Sac Fungi

Sac fungi; found in diverse habitats; 70% of all fungi belong to this group; spores are in sacs called asci; includes yeast, truffles, morels, and penicillin; can become diseases

Basidiomycota: Club Fungi

Typical mushroom; includes shelf/bracket fungi, some molds, and rusts; named for basidia that are club-like cells where spores form; have mycorrhizal associations and lichens; some are mutualistic with insects

Nonvascular Plants

no vascular tissue to conduct water or provide support

Bryophytes

A moss, liverwort, or hornwort

Seedless Plants

Have vascular tissue but do not make seeds

Pteridophytes

Lycophytes, Whisk Ferns, Horsetails, Ferns

Seed Plants

Have vascular tissue and make seeds

Gymnosperms

cycads, ginkos, conifer

Angiosperms

flowering plants

Endosymbiosis

Unicellular organisms engulfed other cells which became organelles: chloroplasts, mitochondria

Ingestive Feeding

eating live or dead organisms or scavenging loose bits of organic debris. Paramecium

Absorptive Feeding

taking nutrients directly from the environment

Paramecium

waves hair-like appendages called cilia to propel itself

Amoeba

uses lobe-like pseudopodia to anchor itself to a solid surface and pull itself

Euglena

Uses a whip-like tail called a flagellum to propel itself

Symplesiomorphy

Ancestral character trait shared by two or more lineages in a clade

plesiamorphy

Human hair is a _______

Bacteria

Saprobes that display positive chemotaxis when near a favorable substrate. Spherical and reproduce/replicate quickly.