AP Biology Exam Review

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

Essential elements in living tissue 96% (CHON)

Polar Covalent Bond

Unequal sharing of electrons within a bond

Nonpolar covalent bond

Euqal sharing of electrons within a bond

Ionic Bond

Type of bond where electron transfer occurs

Form

In order to ______ bonds, energy is realased

Break

In order to ____ bonds, you additional need energy to do so.

Cohesive, Adhesive

Water’s ______ and ______ properties help water to stick to itself and other things

Atomic Mass

Neutrons + Protons=

Protons

Atomic number on periodic table

Hydrogen Bonds

Are weak bonds that makes water cohesive

Less

Ice is ____ dense than liquid water because of the stabilizing hydrogen bonds in ice.

Isomers

Different structures for a single compound, but the molecular formula stays the same..

Macromolecule

Joining of small molecules

Polymer

A chain of monomers joined together (through dehydration synthesis)

Monomer

Building blocks of polymers

Monosaccharide

Monomer for carbs

Starch

Type of sugar that comes from plants

Glycogen

Type of sugar/carb that comes from animal muscles

Cellulose

Plant cell walls (fiber that’s indigestible for us)

Chitin

Fungal cell wall

Hydroxyl

-OH, polar, and hydrophilic (functional group)

Carbonyl

\

C=O Polar and Hydrophilic (functional group)

/

Carboxyl

-COOH, acidic hydrophilic (functional group)

Amino

-NH2, basic hydrophilic/phobic based on the R group (functional group)

Phosphate

Hydrophilic, (-) charged, Acidic

Hydrolysis

Breaking of bond with water

Deyhydration synthesis

Forming of bonds, releasing H2O

Lipids

Fats, hydrophobic, and don’t have dehydration synthesis

Unsaturated Fat, liquid

Fatty acid with one double bond, and is ___ at room temp.

Saturated Fat, solid

Fatty acid with no double bonds and is ____ at room temp

Phospholipids

A type of fatty acid consisting of a glycerol, hydrophilic head, and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

Cholesterol

Stabilizes the membrane at high temperatures

Steroid

Type of a hydrophobic lipid composed of four fused carbon rings and are important for maintaining fluidity and structure of a plasma membrane.

Charged, Polar, Large

What type of molecules cannot pass by diffusion though the plasma membrane (3)

Protein

Polymer of amino acids, and its function depends on its shape.

Denaturation

Protein loses its shape due to pH or temp change

Primary

________ Structure of a protein: Sequence of Amino Acids

Secondary

________ Structure of a protein: Alpha Helix and pleated sheet structures through hydrogen bonding

Tertiary

________ Structure of a protein: 3D Shape of the protein (determined by R group which determines its function)

Quaternary

________ Structure of a protein: Proteins with 2 or more polypeptide chains combine

Nucleotides

Monomers of Nucleic Acids; are composed of a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base

DNA Backbone

Sugar-phosphate part of the DNA sequence forms this:

A-T, C-G

DNA Base pairings

DNA

Composed of two polynucleotides, which forms a double helix held by hydrogen bonds

Gene Expression

1.) Gene directs synthesis of RNA molecules

2.) DNA transcribed into RNA

3.) Same base pairing transcription from RNA to DNA

High Specific Heat

Because water has a _________, it takes a lot of energy to warm up water (break hydrogen bonds)

Passive

Type of transport that has molecules going from a high concentration to a low concentration with no energy supply needed

Active

Type of transport where energy is needed to move molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration

Facilitated Diffusion

Help through the transport protein to move various molecules that may not be able to pass through the plasma membrane on their own.

Isotonic

The solute concentration is the same inside and outside of the cell

Hypotonic

When the solute concentration is lower in the cell, which causes H2O to come in and burst the cell

Turgid

When the concentration inside the cell is lower than the outside, making H2O rush in and putting the cell in this state:

Hypertonic

When the solute concentration inside the cell is higher than the outside of the cell, causing the water to rush out, making the cell shrivel up.

Flaccid

Solute concentration inside the cell is higher than the outside of the cell, causing the water to rush out, making the cell go into this state:

Water Potential

Water leaving from one place in favor of another, and is affected by pressure and amount of solute

Nucleus

Where DNA in eukaryotic cells is held (Cell structure)

Nuclear Envelope

Double membrane that encloses the nucleus and controls and flow of materials in and out of the nucleus (contains pores) (Cell structure)

Nucleolus

Where ribosomes are made (Cell structure)

Ribosomes

Synthesize proteins and are located on the rough ER (Cell structure)

Rough ER

Where ribosomes are located; modifies and packages proteins (Cell structure)

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, Sorts, packages, and ships procuts of the ER (Cell structure)

Smooth ER

Lacks ribosomes, but synthesizes lipids, processes toxins and drugs, and stores and releases Ca+

Lysosomes

Digest and engulf food/damaged organelles; break and recycle them, causing apoptosis

Mitochondria

Carries out cellular respiration in both plants and animals; has its own circular DNA and a double membrane.

Prokaryotes

Found in the bacteria and archaea domain, these cells have no nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Eukaryotes

Found in all organisms except bacteria and archaea; they have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Nucleoid

Region where prokaryotes have their circular DNA concentrated

Chloroplast

Found in plant cells, this si the photosynthesizing organelle.

Granum

Part of the chloroplast; stack of thylakoids

Thylakoid

A single circular green thing in the chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and where the light reaction happens

Stroma

Part of the chloroplast that has thick fluid where the calvin cycle takes place

Vacuoles

Have lysosomal storage functions, holds H2O, and waste products in plants

Plant cell walls

Made of cellulose, and connect cells through plasmodesmata channels in the walls.

plasmodesmata

Channels found connected plant cells between their walls.

Microtubules

Thickest, hollow tubules found in the cytoskeleton, centrosome, spindle fibers, cillia, and flagella

Intermediate Filaments

Type of tubule that helps maintain cell shape and anchor certain organelles

Microfilaments

Thinnest fibers found in the cytoskeleton that help maintain cell shape, muscle contraction, etc.

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Three main domains are:

Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protists

Four sections that make up the Eukarya domain

Peroxisomes

Detoxify harmful compounds and break down hydrogen peroxide; found in eukaryotic cells and are NOT part of the endomembrane system

endomembrane system

membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins

Tight Junction

Type of Junction: At the top of cells which prevent leakage of fluid

Anchoring Junction

Type of Junction: Common in stretchy tissue and make strong sheets

Gap Junction

Type of Junction: Allows communication between cells to occur and a flow of ions

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

Network of proteins and carbs outside the plasma membrane of animal cells and It supports, protects, and anchors cells and helps cells communicate with each other

Endosymbiotic Theory

Theory that Chloroplasts and Mitochondria came from prokaryotes and that’s why they have their own DNA and double membrane.

Phagocytosis

Cell Eating

Pinocytosis

Cell drinking

Reduction

Gain of Electrons (OIL RIG)

Oxidation

Loss of Electrons (OIL RIG)

Glycolysis

In cellular respiration, this occurs in the cytoplasm. This process breaks glucose down into 2 pyruvates, makes 2 ATP molecules, and reduces 2 NAD+-→ NADH

Pyruvate Grooming

In cellular respiration, this occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, each pyruvate (2) is stripped of one carbon molecule which is expirated into CO2, then reduces 1 NAD+ and one proton, and the end product is acetyl CoA

Acetal CoA

Product of pyruvate grooming

Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle

In cellular respiration, this occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria; Acetyl CoA is stripped of the CoA, the two carbons enter the cycle and reduce 3 NAD+, 1 ATP, and 1 FAD. This happens (2x). Oxaloacetate (OAA) is produced at the end so the cycle can go again.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

In cellular respiration, this is the last step; all of the NADH and FADH2 get oxidized, donating their electrons to the electron transport chain (driven by NADH and FADH2). The electrons passing by the protein complex pump the hydrogen ions against their gradient into the inner membrane; the last electron acceptor is oxygen, which gets reduced and turned into water. Then, Hydrogen ions go down their gradient through the ATP synthase, generating ATP

Exergonic

Cellular Respiration is an _______ reaction because it releases energy.

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

In cellular respiration, this occurs in glycolysis and krebs cycle and does not need oxygen. Direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP, forming ATP.

Alcohol Fermentation

When there’s not enough oxygen, Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO₂ and NAD⁺ is regenerated to keep glycolysis going. This is used in brewing, wine-making, and bread baking.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

. When there’s not enough oxygen Pyruvate accepts electrons from NADH → becomes lactic acid. This occurs in muscle cells and some bacteria. NAD⁺ is regenerated to keep glycolysis going but No CO₂ is released. This happens during intense exercise when oxygen is scarce.

First

____ Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be changed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed.