liberalism

key liberal beliefs

liberal beliefs on IGOs

• Liberals see IGOs (UN, EU, WTO, IMF, etc.) as vital in taming anarchy.

• They provide platforms for collective decision-making, reducing mistrust between states.

• Promote interdependence (e.g. trade agreements, climate accords) and make cooperation more likely than conflict.

• IGOs help enforce international law and human rights

liberal beliefs on the nature of global politics

• Liberals reject the realist idea that global politics is dominated by inevitable conflict and power struggles.

• They believe in progress, with the spread of democracy, trade, and law making the system more peaceful and cooperative.

• Increasing complex interdependence: states, corporations, NGOs, and IGOs all shape politics (not just sovereign states).

• Optimistic about the possibility of a “rules-based international order.”

liberal beliefs on how states act

• States are rational but not narrowly self-interested. They recognise that cooperation can produce win–win outcomes (absolute gains, not just relative gains).

• Democratic peace thesis: liberal democracies rarely go to war with each other, since rational citizens avoid costly wars.

realist beliefs on conflict

• Not inevitable; often caused by authoritarian regimes, lack of communication, or absence of institutions.

• War can be avoided through dialogue, trade, and democracy.

• Peace is achievable through:

  • Economic interdependence (trade makes war too costly).

  • Democracy (citizens check leaders’ power).

  • IGOs

liberal beliefs on globalisation

• Economic:

  • Strongly supported — free markets, trade liberalisation, and interdependence spread prosperity and reduce war incentives.

  • Multinational corporations seen as key actors connecting states.

• Political:

  • Welcomed — spread of liberal democracy strengthens peace and accountability.

  • Growth of IGOs and international law is seen as progress toward global governance.

  • Human rights and humanitarian values become universal.

• Cultural:

  • Generally positive — cultural exchange promotes understanding and tolerance.

  • Encourages cosmopolitanism and global citizenship.

  • However, some liberals stress that globalisation should respect diversity and not become cultural imperialism.

how would liberals explain behaviour

personal

• humans have the capacity to be good

• cooperation is possible + desirable 

• people have an objective understanding of right and wrong

state

• states can cooperate in pursuit of absolute gains - all states benefit

global

• interdependence of states, facilitated by IGOs + other non state actors 

economic/commercial liberalism

• based on ideas of free trade and commercial liberalism

  • the natural development of trading blocs and ‘the invisible hand’ (individuals pursuing their own self-interest in free markets unintentionally promote overall economic well-being) of supply and demand

• belief that aggression and expansionism are deterred by the ‘spirit of commerce’

• developed into ‘complex interdependence’

  • all states are affected by the actions of other states, modifying the impact of anarchy

  • critical of neorealist focus on military and diplomatic dimensions of international politics 

institutional liberalism

• belief in the need for sovereign power is needed in international politics (eg an international rule of la)

• focus on IGO and their role in supporting peaceful negotiations and harmony on the world stage

• distancing themselves from the idealism of leaders like Wilson liberal institutionalists focus on interstate actors as facilitators of cooperation rather than arbiters of international justice

• belief in ‘absolute gains’ rather than ‘relative gains’

democratic liberliams

• democratic states seen as ‘naturally’ peaceful due to public accountability of gov

• authoritarian states are inherently unstable, leading to a belief that we are moving towards a fully democratised world

• ‘democratic peace thesis’ (as more countries become democratic the less conflict there’ll be) suggests there are ‘zones of peace’ and ‘zones of war’

  • a democratic country has never waged war on another democratic country in modern times

key liberal thinkers

thomas aquinas

• Opposed to Machiavelli who says to do whatever a state must do to hold power

• Aquinas thinks war has to be in consultation and there must be justification for it

• There has to be moral understanding of what is right - the problem is that each side thinks they're right (universally understood concept of moral right is hard to grasp)

immanuel kant

• categorical imperative. Objective moral right and wrong

• Opposed to Machiavelli who would be willing to use people as a means to an end. Kant would disagree as one of his maxims is - treating people as ends not means

JS Mill

• Harm principle

• States should be able to act as they want and run their state how they want as long as they aren't causing any harm

• Only when these states are about to cause harm to another state, intervention is valid. Intervention from other states as well as IGOs

Woodrow Wilson

• emphasis on democratic principles

• Wanted economic interdependence as this means states are less likely to go to war w/ eachother as they are trading w/ eachother

• Emphasis on diplomacy, prioritising negotiation over conflict

• Created the league of nations (LON), acting as a precursor to the UN

joseph nye

• Complex interdependence theory

• Emphasises the multiple ways states and non-state actors (TNCs, IGOs) are interconnected through economic, environmental, social and political ties

• In an increasingly globalised world, military power is less significant compared to other forms of power, as states become more reliant on eachother for trade, resources and security

• This interconnectedness challenges realist views that prioritise military capabilities over economic and diplomatic relations

liberalism case study

Biden in office 2020-2024

• The election of Biden as US president in 2020 was called a return to liberalism in US foreign policy by many analysts

• The US re-joined the Paris Climate Agreement just hours after Biden's inauguration

• Highly experienced John Kerry was appointed as Special Envoy for Climate Change, bringing the US back to the forefront of UN climate negotiations

• Biden returned to a more confrontational stance w/ Russia, criticising the arrest of opposition leader Alexei Navalny

• Biden has maintained a tough stance on issues such as political freedom in Hong Kong and independent status for Taiwan

• In August 2021 Biden followed through on his promise to end America's 'forever wars', and leave Afghanistan. However he was criticised for doing so by his European allies who felt the US was abandoning cooperation and forsaking the Afghan government

• This move was also interpreted by many as an attempt to move away from fighting terrorism to confronting an assertive China

link to liberalism

• Biden prioritised working with allies, leaving Afghanistan and re-joining international agreements, opting for diplomacy and cooperation rather than conflict

• Biden advocating for human rights and democracy by opposing Russia/China