Biological Psychology Notes - Neurons, Neurotransmitters, and Brain Structures

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the notes on neurons, neurotransmitters, brain regions, and behavior genetics.

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, and hormonal) processes and psychological (behavioral and mental) processes.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.

Neuron

The basic building block of the nervous system; about 135 billion neurons in total.

Cell body

The neuron's life-support center that performs operations to keep the neuron alive.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other cells.

Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Terminal branches of axon

Form junctions with other cells.

Axon terminals

Contain neurotransmitters.

Myelin sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and speeds neural impulses.

Action potential

Electrical signal traveling down the axon; occurs when the neuron’s activation reaches the threshold.

Synapse

Tiny junction where an axon terminal communicates with the receiving neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites.

Receptors

Binding sites on the receiving neuron for neurotransmitters.

Excitatory effect

Increases the receiving neuron's state of activation.

Inhibitory effect

Decreases the receiving neuron's state of activation.

Synaptic gap

The space neurotransmitters cross to reach the receiving neuron.

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the sending neuron's axon terminals.

Enzymes (in clearing the synaptic gap)

Break down neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Affects learning and memory; causes muscle contraction; neurons deteriorate in Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

Affects voluntary movement, attention, learning, and emotion; dopamine neurons deteriorate in Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; low levels linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

Affects alertness and arousal; low levels can depress mood.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter with calming effects; low levels linked to anxiety, seizures, and insomnia.

Glutamate

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory; high levels can cause migraines or seizures.

Endorphins

Reduce pain perception and increase pleasure; released in response to pain and vigorous exercise.

Agonist

A drug that enhances a neurotransmitter's effects by binding to receptors, increasing release, or inhibiting reuptake.

Antagonist

A drug that hinders a neurotransmitter's effects by blocking receptors or reducing release.

Sensory neurons (afferent)

Carry signals from the body’s tissues and sense organs to the brain or spinal cord.

Motor neurons (efferent)

Carry signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Connect one neuron to another within the CNS; do not contact body tissues directly.

Glial cells

Supporting cells in the nervous system (referenced as page 44).

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; composed entirely of interneurons (per notes).

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The body's sensory and motor neurons outside the CNS; divided into subsystems.

Hindbrain

The pons, medulla, and cerebellum; essential for basic survival functions and motor coordination.

Midbrain

Connects the hindbrain with the forebrain; controls some movement.

Forebrain

The cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory functions, and voluntary motor activities.

Cerebral cortex

Outer brain layer with motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.

Motor cortex

Back of the frontal lobe; controls voluntary movements; left cortex controls the right body and vice versa; different areas control different body parts.

Somatosensory cortex

Located at the front of the parietal lobes; processes touch, temperature, pain, and body movement; left hemisphere processes right-side body information; right processes left.

Auditory cortex

Located in the temporal lobes above the ears; processes information from the ears; left processes right ear; right processes left.

Visual cortex

Located at the back of the occipital lobes; processes information from the eyes; left visual cortex processes the right visual field; right processes the left.

Association areas

Not primary motor or sensory areas; involved in higher mental functions.

Prefrontal cortex

Located in the forward part of the frontal lobes; responsible for executive functions like goal setting, planning, judgment, foresight, and self-control; also involved in moral judgment, emotion, social interaction, and new memory processing; damage can cause disorganized or impulsive behavior.

Temporal lobes (upper vs lower)

Upper half recognizes auditory stimuli; lower half recognizes visual stimuli; damage to the lower half can cause visual agnosia.

Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC)

Region outside the somatosensory cortex involved in monitoring where things are in space and in spatial reasoning.

Hemispheric specialization

Left and right hemispheres are specialized for different tasks.

Left hemisphere

Controls movement on the right side; involved in speech; excels at quick, literal language and math.

Right hemisphere

Controls movement on the left side; excels at language inferences, nonverbal patterns, and self-awareness.

Behavior Genetics

The study of genetic and environmental influences on behavior and mental processes; genes are DNA segments; genes can be expressed or blocked; environment can trigger or block expression.

Epigenetics

The study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can trigger or block genetic expression.

Evolutionary psychology

Understanding human nature through the lens of evolutionary processes (referenced pages 81–84 in the textbook).