APUSH Key Terms Periods 1-4

P1

(1491-1607)

Apache

A group of culturally related Native American tribes, primarily located in the American Southwest and parts of the Great Plains. Known for their nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, skilled horsemanship, and resistance to Spanish and later American expansion.

Atlantic Seaboard Native Americans

Diverse indigenous peoples living along the eastern coast of North America before and during European colonization. Examples include the Powhatan, Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Lenape. They often relied on mixed agriculture, hunting, and fishing, and had varied social and political structures.

Bison/Buffalo on Great Plains

The dominant large mammal of the North American Great Plains, a crucial resource for many Native American groups in the region (e.g., Sioux, Cheyenne). Provided food, hides for shelter and clothing, and bones for tools. Their movements influenced Native American migration patterns and hunting strategies.

Black Legend

A style of historical writing or propaganda that demonizes the Spanish Empire, particularly its actions in the Americas. It highlights Spanish cruelty, fanaticism, and exploitation, often to justify the actions of rival European powers.

Cabeza de Vaca

A Spanish explorer who was shipwrecked off the coast of Texas in 1528 and spent eight years traveling through the American Southwest and Mexico before returning to Spanish territory. His accounts provided early European descriptions of the region and its Native American inhabitants.

California Native Americans

Highly diverse indigenous peoples inhabiting present-day California. They spoke many different languages and adapted to varied environments (coast, valleys, mountains). Many were hunter-gatherers, utilizing abundant resources like acorns, fish, and game. Examples include the Chumash and Pomo.

Capitalism

An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, a free market, and the pursuit of profit. Its emergence in Europe influenced the motivations and methods of exploration and colonization, as individuals and companies sought new sources of wealth and trade routes.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century. Its triangular lateen sails allowed it to sail against the wind, making it crucial for long-distance oceanic voyages, including those of Columbus.

Caste System (Spanish Colonial)

A social hierarchy established by the Spanish in their American colonies. It categorized individuals based on their racial ancestry (Spanish, Indigenous, African) and place of birth (peninsulares, criollos), determining their social status, legal rights, and economic opportunities.

Cherokee of the Southeast

An Iroquoian-speaking Native American nation historically inhabiting the southeastern United States (e.g., Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina). Known for their agricultural practices, complex social organization, and later, their adoption of elements of American culture, including a written language.

Chinook

Native American people primarily inhabiting the Pacific Northwest coast (Columbia River region). Known for their sophisticated fishing technologies, cedar plank houses, totem poles, and extensive trade networks.

Chumash

Native American people indigenous to the central and southern coastal regions of California. Skilled mariners, known for their plank canoes (tomols), sophisticated basketry, and complex social organization.

Christopher Columbus’ Voyage

The 1492 transatlantic voyage by Italian explorer Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, which led to his landing in the Caribbean. This event is conventionally seen as the beginning of sustained European contact with the Americas and the subsequent colonization of the "New World."

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas (the "New World") and the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Columbus's voyages.

Coronado (Francisco Vázquez de)

A Spanish conquistador who led a large expedition through the American Southwest (1540-1542) in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Cíbola. His expedition provided early European contact with Pueblo peoples and extensive mapping of the region, though he found no gold.

Encomienda System

A labor system implemented by the Spanish Crown in the Americas. Spanish conquistadors and settlers were granted control over a specific number of Native American laborers, whom they were supposed to protect and Christianize in exchange for tribute (labor, goods, or money). It often devolved into severe exploitation and forced labor.

Feudalism

A decentralized political and economic system in medieval Europe where land was exchanged for military service or labor. It involved a hierarchy of lords, vassals, and serfs. While declining by the time of European exploration, its remnants influenced European social structures and land-based economies.

God, Gold, Glory

A shorthand phrase used to describe the primary motivations for European exploration and colonization of the Americas God> The desire to spread Christianity (especially Catholicism) to new lands. Gold> The pursuit of wealth, including precious metals (gold, silver), new resources, and trade opportunities. Glory> The desire for national prestige, personal fame, adventure, and expanding imperial power.

Great Basin Aridity

The characteristic dryness and desert-like conditions of the Great Basin region in the western United States, due to its location in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada mountains. This aridity significantly shaped the environment and the cultures of the Native Americans living there.

Great Basin Native Americans

Diverse indigenous peoples inhabiting the arid Great Basin region (parts of Nevada, Utah, Oregon, California). Due to limited resources, many were nomadic hunter-gatherers, moving frequently to find food and water. Examples include the Shoshone and Paiute.

Great Plains Grasslands

The vast, relatively flat expanse of grasslands in the central United States, supporting large herds of bison. This environment was central to the nomadic and semi-nomadic cultures of many Native American tribes who relied on the bison for sustenance.

Great Plains Native Americans

Indigenous peoples living in the Great Plains region. Before the introduction of horses, many were agriculturalists living in villages along rivers. After the introduction of horses, many became nomadic buffalo hunters. Examples include the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Pawnee.

Inclearingly Complex

This is likely a typo and should be "Unbearably Complex" or "Increasingly Complex." If it refers to historical analysis, it suggests that the interactions and systems of the period were intricate and had multiple contributing factors, making them difficult to fully comprehend or simplify.

Introduction of Tobacco, Chocolate, Corn, Potatoes, and Tomatoes to the Old World

Key components of the "Columbian Exchange." These New World crops revolutionized agriculture and diets in Europe, Africa, and Asia, contributing to population growth and new economic activities.

Introduction of Wheat, Oxen, Horses, Weapons, Farming Tools, and Smallpox to the New World

Key components of the "Columbian Exchange." These Old World introductions had profound impacts

Wheat

Became a staple crop.

Oxen/Horses

Revolutionized transportation, agriculture, and hunting (especially for Plains Native Americans).

Weapons/Farming Tools

European technologies that altered Native American warfare and agricultural practices.

Smallpox

The most devastating, causing massive demographic collapse among Native American populations who had no immunity.

Iroquois

A powerful confederacy of Native American nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and later Tuscarora) in the Northeast (present-day New York). Known for their sophisticated political structure (the Great Law of Peace), longhouses, and strategic alliances/conflicts with European powers.

Joint Stock Company

A business organization in which investors pool their money to finance a large commercial venture (like a colonial expedition). Shares are sold to multiple investors, who then share the profits and losses. This model was crucial for funding early English colonies like Jamestown.

Maize Cultivation

The cultivation of corn, which originated in Mesoamerica. Its widespread adoption throughout the Americas allowed for settled agricultural communities, population growth, and the development of complex societies (e.g., Pueblo, Mississippian cultures).

Maritime Technology

Innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, and sailing techniques that enabled long-distance sea voyages. Examples include the caravel, astrolabe, compass, and sextant. These advancements were essential for European exploration and colonization.

Maroon Communities

Settlements formed by escaped enslaved Africans in the Americas. Located in remote or difficult-to-access areas (e.g., mountains, swamps), these communities often resisted recapture and preserved African cultural traditions.

Middle Passage

The brutal and deadly sea voyage that forcibly transported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas as part of the transatlantic slave trade. Characterized by horrific conditions, disease, and high mortality rates.

Mississippi River Valley Native Americans

Diverse indigenous peoples living along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Known for their complex societies, large mound-building (e.g., Cahokia), and agricultural economies (maize cultivation).

Navajo

A large Native American nation primarily located in the American Southwest (Four Corners region). They migrated from the north relatively late but became known for their sheepherding, weaving, silversmithing, and distinct language and cultural practices.

Nez Perce

A Native American tribe primarily inhabiting the Plateau region of the Pacific Northwest (parts of Idaho, Oregon, Washington). Known for their horsemanship, distinctive Appaloosa horses, and reliance on salmon fishing and camas roots.

New World

A term used by Europeans to refer to the Americas (North, South, and Central America, and the Caribbean islands) after Columbus's voyages, distinguishing them from the "Old World" of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Northwest Native Americans (Pacific Northwest)

Diverse indigenous peoples living along the Pacific coast from Alaska to northern California. Characterized by abundant natural resources (especially salmon and cedar), enabling complex sedentary societies, elaborate art (totem poles), and sophisticated social structures. Examples include the Chinook, Kwakiutl, and Haida.

Plantation-Based Agriculture

An agricultural system characterized by large-scale commercial farming, often focused on a single cash crop (e.g., sugar, tobacco, cotton), and typically relying on forced labor (enslaved Africans) to maximize profits. Prevalent in the Caribbean and the Southern British colonies.

Present-Day American Southwest

The geographic region encompassing modern-day Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of surrounding states. Home to ancient and historic Native American cultures (e.g., Pueblo, Apache, Navajo) and a significant area of early Spanish exploration and colonization.

Present-Day California

The geographic region that became the state of California. Before European contact, it was home to an incredibly diverse array of Native American linguistic and cultural groups. Later, it was colonized by Spain and then became part of Mexico before joining the United States.

Pueblo

Sedentary Native American peoples of the American Southwest, known for their distinctive multi-story adobe and stone dwellings (pueblos) built into cliffs or on mesa tops. They practiced irrigation agriculture (maize, beans, squash) and maintained complex religious and social structures.

Roanoke

The site of the first attempted English colony in North America, established in 1585 and again in 1587 on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina. The second attempt famously disappeared without a trace by 1590, becoming known as the "Lost Colony."

Sextant

A navigational instrument used to measure the angle between the horizon and any celestial body (like the sun, moon, or stars) to determine a vessel's latitude. Improved upon earlier instruments like the astrolabe and quadrant, aiding long-distance maritime travel.

Shoshone

A Native American people whose traditional lands spanned a vast area of the Great Basin, Wyoming, and Idaho. Many groups were nomadic hunter-gatherers, adapted to arid environments, and later became skilled horsemen on the Plains.

Silver Mines (Spanish Colonial)

Vast and highly productive silver mines, particularly in Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico), which were the economic engine of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. The forced labor of Native Americans (and later enslaved Africans) in these mines generated immense wealth for Spain but caused immense suffering.

Sioux

A broad confederation of Native American tribes (Dakota, Lakota, Nakota) originally from the Great Lakes region who migrated to the Great Plains. They became renowned nomadic buffalo hunters and fierce warriors after adopting the horse.

Southwest Native Americans

Diverse indigenous peoples living in the arid and semi-arid regions of the American Southwest. This region fostered distinctive cultures, including settled agriculturalists (Pueblo) and more nomadic hunter-gatherers (Apache, Navajo).

Spanish Empire in Western Hemisphere

The vast colonial territories claimed and controlled by Spain in the Americas, stretching from present-day southwestern and southeastern United States, through Central America, Mexico, and much of South America, plus the Caribbean. Characterized by a centralized bureaucracy, the encomienda and mission systems, and extraction of resources.

Spanish Mission System

A network of religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic missionaries (primarily Franciscans) in their American colonies, particularly in California, Texas, and the Southwest. Aimed to convert Native Americans to Christianity, assimilate them into Spanish culture, and exploit their labor.

Views of Bartolomé de Las Casas

A Spanish Dominican friar and historian who became a vocal critic of the abuses committed by Spanish conquistadors and settlers against Native Americans. He passionately argued for the humane treatment of indigenous peoples and advocated for their rights. His writings contributed to the "Black Legend."

Views of Juan de Sepúlveda

A Spanish humanist and theologian who argued that the Spanish conquest and enslavement of Native Americans were justified. He believed that Native Americans were "natural slaves" due to their perceived barbarism and that it was Spain's right and duty to civilize and Christianize them through force.

Western Great Plains Native Americans

Indigenous peoples specifically inhabiting the western portion of the Great Plains, often characterized by more arid conditions and closer proximity to the Rocky Mountains. They often had similar nomadic, buffalo-hunting cultures to their eastern counterparts after the adoption of horses.

Western Hemisphere

A geographical term referring to the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian and east of the Antimeridian. This includes North America, South America, and parts of Europe, Africa, and Antarctica. In the context of American history, it usually refers to the Americas.

P2

(1607-1754)

Anglicanization

The process by which the various British colonies in North America increasingly adopted English (Anglican) cultural, political, economic, and social norms. This included the establishment of English legal systems, forms of government, architectural styles, and consumer goods.

Atlantic Economy

A vast and interconnected economic system that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas. It was characterized by the exchange of goods (raw materials from the Americas, manufactured goods from Europe), labor (enslaved Africans), and capital. Mercantilism and the transatlantic slave trade were central to its functioning.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, primarily to provide labor for plantations. This brutal system, lasting from the 16th to the 19th centuries, involved European traders, African captors, and the horrific conditions of the Middle Passage.

Bacon's Manifesto

A declaration issued by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676, during Bacon's Rebellion. It criticized the colonial government of Virginia, particularly Governor William Berkeley, for corruption, favoritism, and failure to protect frontier settlers from Native American attacks. It also called for reforms and greater representation for common farmers.

Bacon's Rebellion

An armed uprising in 1676 in colonial Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon. It was fueled by discontent among frontier settlers over Governor William Berkeley's policies regarding Native Americans, perceived government corruption, and economic grievances. The rebellion briefly overthrew Berkeley's government and highlighted tensions between social classes and the demand for land, ultimately contributing to the shift from indentured servitude to chattel slavery.

Beaver Wars of the mid-1600s

A series of brutal conflicts fought primarily between the Iroquois Confederacy (allied with the Dutch and later English) and various Algonquian-speaking tribes (allied with the French) over control of the lucrative fur trade in the Great Lakes region. These wars devastated many Native American populations and reshaped alliances and power dynamics.

Bread-basket Colonies

A common nickname for the Middle Colonies (Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware) due to their fertile soil and favorable climate, which allowed them to produce and export large quantities of grain (wheat, corn, oats).

British Colonization

The establishment of colonies by Great Britain (and later the United Kingdom) in various parts of the world, including North America, beginning in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Motivated by economic gain (mercantilism), religious freedom, and imperial competition, it led to the formation of the thirteen colonies that would eventually become the United States.

Chattel Slavery

A system of bondage in which a slave is treated as property (chattel), rather than as a human being. Slaves could be bought, sold, inherited, or willed. Their descendants were also considered property, making slavery hereditary. This form of slavery was increasingly codified in the British North American colonies in the late 17th century.

Chesapeake and North Carolina Colonies

Referring primarily to Virginia and Maryland (Chesapeake), and eventually North Carolina. These colonies developed economies heavily reliant on the cultivation of tobacco as a cash crop, leading to a significant demand for labor that was eventually met by the expansion of chattel slavery.

Chickasaw Wars of the mid-1700s

A series of conflicts primarily between the Chickasaw Nation (often allied with the British) and the French (allied with the Choctaw and Illinois) in the Mississippi Valley. These wars were part of the larger imperial rivalries between European powers and their Native American allies for control of territory and trade.

Christianity

The monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Various denominations of Christianity (Puritanism, Anglicanism, Quakerism, Catholicism) played a central role in the motivations for and development of European colonization, influencing social norms, laws, and missionary efforts in the New World.

Colonial Legislatures

Representative bodies established in the British North American colonies. While often limited in power and subject to imperial oversight, they allowed colonists a degree of self-governance, particularly in matters of taxation and local law. Examples include the House of Burgesses in Virginia and the Massachusetts General Court.

Conquistador

A Spanish term for the leaders and soldiers of the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the 16th century. They were often driven by "God, Gold, and Glory," seeking wealth, spreading Christianity, and extending Spanish imperial power through military force.

Covert Resistance to Slavery

Non-violent, often hidden, acts by enslaved people to undermine or challenge the institution of slavery. Examples include

Dutch Colonization

The establishment of colonies by the Netherlands in the Americas, primarily in the Hudson River Valley (New Netherland, centered around New Amsterdam, present-day New York City). The Dutch focused heavily on the fur trade and had a more diverse population than English colonies, with greater religious tolerance.

Elected Assemblies

Representative bodies whose members are chosen by popular vote (though often restricted to white, land-owning males). These assemblies became a key feature of British colonial governance, giving colonists a voice in local affairs and leading to early forms of self-government.

Elite Planters

Wealthy landowners in the Southern Colonies who owned large plantations and a significant number of enslaved laborers. They formed the dominant economic and political class in these regions, wielding considerable influence over colonial policies.

Enlightenment

An intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Emphasized reason, individualism, and human progress. Its ideas (e.g., natural rights, separation of powers, social contract) profoundly influenced American political thought and the push for independence.

Epidemic Diseases

Widespread outbreaks of infectious diseases that affect a large number of people in a population at the same time. European diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which Native Americans had no immunity, caused catastrophic population declines in the Americas after European contact.

First Great Awakening

A series of religious revivals that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. It emphasized individual piety, emotional religious experience, and challenged traditional church authority. Key figures included Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. It led to the growth of new denominations and fostered a sense of shared American identity.

French Colonization

The establishment of colonies by France in North America, primarily in Canada (New France) and the Mississippi River Valley (Louisiana). Focused heavily on the fur trade and maintaining good relations with Native American allies, rather than large-scale agricultural settlement.

Fur Trade

A lucrative economic activity in North America involving the exchange of European manufactured goods (e.g., tools, firearms) for animal pelts (especially beaver) obtained by Native Americans. It shaped alliances between European powers and Native American tribes and contributed to inter-tribal conflicts.

God, Gold, Glory

(See previous definition, often applies to both Spanish and other European motivations for colonization). The primary motivations for European exploration and colonization

Head-right System

A system used in colonial Virginia and other colonies to encourage immigration. Colonists who paid for their own passage to the New World (or the passage of others) received 50 acres of land for each person. This system fueled land expansion and the demand for labor.

House of Burgesses

The first representative assembly in British North America, established in 1619 in the Jamestown Colony, Virginia. It marked an early step towards self-governance in the American colonies, though its power was limited.

Imperial Policies (British)

The set of rules, laws, and regulations enacted by the British government to control and manage its colonies. These policies often aimed to benefit the mother country economically (mercantilism) and assert political control. Examples include the Navigation Acts.

Indentured Servant

A person who voluntarily bound themselves to work for a fixed number of years (typically 4-7) for an employer in exchange for passage to the New World, food, shelter, and sometimes "freedom dues" (land, tools) upon completion of their service. A primary source of labor in early colonial America before the widespread adoption of chattel slavery.

Intermarriage

Marriage between people of different racial or ethnic groups. In the context of early American history, this often refers to marriages between European colonists and Native Americans, or between Europeans and Africans. Such unions were often viewed differently by various European powers and colonial societies.

Jamestown Colony

The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607 in present-day Virginia. Faced severe challenges during its early years ("Starving Time") but eventually thrived with the cultivation of tobacco.

John Winthrop

A prominent Puritan leader who served as the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He envisioned the colony as a "city upon a hill," a model Christian society for the world to emulate, emphasizing strict religious adherence and community solidarity.

Jonathan Edwards' "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

A famous sermon delivered by Puritan minister Jonathan Edwards in 1741 during the First Great Awakening. It emphasized God's omnipotence and wrath, human sinfulness, and the need for immediate repentance, using vivid imagery to evoke emotional responses from his listeners.

Mayflower Compact

A governing agreement signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620 before landing at Plymouth. It established a civil body politic and a system of majority rule among the male settlers, serving as an early example of self-governance and social contract in the colonies.

Mercantilism

An economic theory and policy prevalent in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It held that a nation's power was directly related to its wealth (especially gold and silver) and that colonies existed to benefit the mother country by providing raw materials and serving as markets for manufactured goods.

Metacom's War (King Philip's War)

A devastating conflict (1675-1676) between Native American inhabitants of New England (led by Metacom, also known as King Philip, a Wampanoag leader) and English colonists and their Native American allies. It resulted in widespread death and destruction on both sides, effectively ending Native American resistance to English expansion in New England.

Middle Colonies

The cluster of British colonies located between New England and the Southern Colonies, including New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Characterized by greater diversity (ethnic, religious, and economic) and fertile farmlands (Bread-basket Colonies).

Navigation Acts

A series of English laws passed between 1651 and 1696 to enforce mercantilist policies. They required that most colonial goods be shipped only on English ships, that certain "enumerated" goods (like tobacco) could only be shipped to England, and that all European goods destined for the colonies had to pass through England first. Aimed to benefit the English economy and restrict colonial trade.

New England

The region of British colonies in the northeastern United States, including Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. Characterized by a colder climate, rocky soil, a focus on fishing, shipbuilding, and commerce, and a strong Puritan influence.

New England Colonies

The specific British colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth (later absorbed by Massachusetts), Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. Founded primarily for religious freedom (for Puritans) and characterized by town meetings, small farms, and a more diversified economy than the South.

New France

The colonial territory claimed by France in North America, encompassing a vast area from present-day Canada (Quebec) down the Mississippi River Valley (Louisiana). Primarily focused on the fur trade and establishing alliances with Native American tribes, with relatively smaller European populations than British colonies.

New Light Ministers

Protestant ministers who supported the First Great Awakening. They embraced the new, more emotional, and evangelical style of preaching, often challenging established religious authority and emphasizing personal conversion experiences.

New Netherlands

The Dutch colony established in the Hudson River Valley, centered around New Amsterdam (present-day New York City). Focused on the fur trade, characterized by ethnic and religious diversity, and later taken over by the English in 1664.