Relationships

What did Darwin propose about human reproductive behaviour?

evolved through process of sexual selection

As comp for access to mates influenced the evolution of behavioural and physical characteristics in early humans in EEA

How did a characteristic become exaggerated over time?

if a particular characteristic became established as a universal preference amongst females

males with this characteristic experienced greater reproductive success

What two types of sexual selection did Darwin identify?

Intersexual and intrasexual

Which type of selection is the preferred strategy of females and males?

females - intersexual

Males - intrasexual

What does intersexual selection involve?

Being choose as she has more to lose if she makes wrong choice

There’s More consequences so female needs to choose genetically fit partner

Who is able and willing to provide resources

What has intersexual selection led to ?

The evolution of courtship displays in males

What does intrasexual selection involve?

competition between members of one sex attempting to impress members of opposite sex

In order to gain access to best quality mate

Winner reproduces and passes on his characteristics to offspring that led to his victory

What has intrasexual selection led to?

evolution of greater muscaculture and lower threshold for aggression in males

What is a competition of sexual selection?

males evolved a greater desire than females to engage in short term mating as

male reproductive success is determined by quantity not quality of females they impregnate

Not evolved in females as mating with poor quality male may have led to poor quality offspring and damage to reputation

What does the evolutionary explanations of partner preferences suggest ?

females evolved to be more discriminatory about the genetic quality of potential mate as they have lower reproductive capacity than males

So evolved to be most attracted to mates who display indicators of robust genes and indicators of their ability to provide resources and protection for her and offspring

What are some characteristic females evolved to be attracted to and why?

Tall - imposing figure and can provide protection

Muscles/fit body - is healthy and can collect and provide resources for women

Kind - will share their resources with women and offspring

what are characteristics that males are attracted to in females and why?

females who display indicators of fertility

Waist to hip ratio

If women is fertile means she is physically able to carry children and produce children for the man

Why does physical attractiveness influence attraction?

Acc to evolutionary theory its an important cue to women’s health and reproductive value

How do men and women rely on physical attractiveness?

women rely on PA for short relationships, but less concerned when it comes to long term

Men rely on PA for long term

What does the Halo effect suggest?

PA influences attraction cuz we have preconceived ideas about personality traits attractive ppl must have

What are physically attractive ppl consistently rated as?

strong, kind, sociable and successful compared to unattractive ppl

Having these traits makes them more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them

Who created the matching hypothesis?

Walster et al

What does matching hypothesis suggest?

ppl choose romantic partners who are of similar physical attractions to them

Indv asses their own value in eyes of potential partner and select best available candidate who would be attracted to them

Why can mismatching be a problem?

couples who dont match have less successful relationships

As less attractive partner may be anxious the other person will leave them for better match

What’s the role of realistic choices in relationship formation?

ppl make realistic choices.

They weight up desirability of potential partner with the probability that they will want them,

What is self disclosure?

revealing personal info about yourself

Self disclosures about ones deepest thoughts and feeling can strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately

Who created the social penetration theory ?

Altman and Taylor

What is social penetration?

process of revealing your inner self to someone, or giving away your deepest thoughts and feeelings.

In doing so, one displays trust

To progress, the other must reveal sensitive info

As they disclose more info, partner gain a greater understanding of other

What does social penetration theory suggest?

self disclosure is an important factor in attraction

What is self disclosure like at the beggining of a relationship?

Revelations start off being very superficial (low risk info we would reveal to anyone)

Breadth is narrow cuz many topics r off limits in early stages and if we reveal too much too soon it may threaten relationship before it gets going

What is self disclosure like as a relationship develops?

becomes deeper as we reveal more of true selves and important things to us

Willing to reveal intimate, high risk info eg painful memories

Who says there needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure for a relationship to develop?

Reins and Shaver

How does reciprocal self disclosure work?

once person has disclosed something about their true self, hopefully partner responds in rewarding way with understanding, empathy and their own intimate info

So there’s balance of self disclosure between partners which deepens relationships

What does filter theory state?

different factors progressively limit the range of available romantic partners to a much smaller pool of possibilities

What are the 3 filters?

1st - social demography

2nd - Similarity in attitudes

3rd - Complementarity

What is the role of social demography?

social and demographic variables eg age background

Usually happens without us being aware of it

Meet ppl who are similar through school/work

We find them more attractive as have more in common with them

What is the role of similarity in attitudes?

when ppl share attitudes and beliefs, communication is easy and relationship progresses

Who is filtered out in stage 2? Who gets through?

ppl with varying attitudes and beliefs are filtered out

Ppl who get through are those we have something in common with

Why is complementarity important?

Cuz finding someone who complements your needs ensures your own needs met

If marriages are to work

What does complementarity mean in the long term?

ppl will be attracted to those whose needs are harmonious rather than conflicting with them

Who created filter theory?

Kerchkoff and Davis

What does filter theory suggest?

ppl use a number of different filters to narrow down range of PP from field of availables to a field of desirables

What is social exchange theory?

A theory of how relationships form and develop. It assumes that romantic partners act out of self interest in exchanging rewards and costs

Who created SET?

Thibault and Kelly

What does SET suggest?

Relationships are maintained if each partner perceives the outcome of the relationship to be profitable.

Both partners strive to maximise rewards and minimised costs

What are some benefits and costs of being relationship?

Benefits - loved, companionship, sex, reliability

Costs - money, arguments, boredom

What are the stages through relationships are maintained?

Sampling

Bargaining

Commitment

Institutionalisation

What happens during sampling?

We explore the rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships, or by observing others doing so

What happens during bargaining?

At the beggining of relationship, partners start exchanging various rewards and costs

Identifying what is most profitable

What happens during commitment?

the sources of costs and rewards become more predictable, and the relationship becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen

What happens during institutionalisation?

Partners settled down as rewards and costs are firmly established

What is comparison level?

The amount of reward you beleive you deserve to get

People feel a relationship is worth pursuing if comparison level is equal to or better than what you experienced in your previous relationship

What is comparison level based on?

Previous romantic relationships and cultural norms of what is appropriate to expect from relationships.

Norms influence by books, films, TV

Self esteem plays role. Ppl with low self esteem have low CL as low expectations.

What is comparison level for alternatives ?

Persons perception of whether other potential relationships would be more rewarding than being in their current relationship

People will stick to their current relationship as long as they find them more profitable than alternatives

What is equity theory? What does it focus on?

an economic theory of how relationships develop, suggesting that inputs and outputs have an impact on relationship satisfaction

It focuses on the perception that the distribution of inputs and outputs in a relationship is fair

How are relationships maintained according to equity theory?

if the outcome of the relationship is perceived to be equitable (fair) e.g. what each partner gets out of the relationship (rewards-costs) is proportional to what they put in to the relationship

What are the consequences of inequity in a relationship?

Has the potential to cause distress. This happens when one person gives a great deal and gets little in return. However the same is true of those who receive a great deal and give little in return.

What are the two different consequences of inequity?

Under-benefitted - anger, sadness, resentment

Over-benefitted - guilt, pity, shame

The greater the inequity..

the greater the dissatisfaction and stress, and the more they were motivated to do something about it

What are 3 ways inequity can be restored in a relationship?

1.restoration of actual equity putting things right within the relationship

2.restoration of psychological equity – couples distort reality and convince themselves that things are perfectly fair

 3.if equity cannot be restored then partners can leave it – physically or emotionally

What does investment model suggest?

the maintence of a relationship is determined by the level of commitment from each partner

What is commitment>

Reflects each persons desire to remain in a relationship and their feeling of attachment to it

What is commitment determined by?

level of satisfaction

Investment

Comparison of alternatives

What is the role of satisfaction in a relationship?

Whether the outcomes of the relationship are perceived to be profitable (rewards - costs)

What’s the role of comparison of alternatives?

individual will continue to invest in their relationship if quality of potential partners is low

What is investment and what are the 3 types?

resouces that would be lost if the relationship ended

1. Financial

2. Emotional

3. Temporal

When is commitment high?

when levels of satisfaction are high, investments are high and quality of alternatives is low

What 2 catagories of causes of breakdown did Duck identify?

predisposing factors - internal facotrs eg emotional instability, irritating habits

Precipitating factors - external factors eg reduced proximity, other people, money

What are the stages of breakdown?

intrapsychic phase

Dyadic phase

Social phase

Grave dressing phase

When does intrapsychic phase begin?

when one partner starts to brood about their partners faults and lack of satisfaction they get from relationshipshat

what is intrapsychic phase characterised by?

Social withdrawal and resentment partner may become distant or moody

They weigh up pros and cons of being in a relationship

When does dyadic phase begin?

When one or both partners discuss with eachother the reason they are dissatisfied with the relationship

What is dyadic phase characterised by?

arguments but may result in reconciliation if the partners work towards resolving the lack of equity

When does social phase begin?

When the possibility if breakup is made public . Partners reveal the reason they are dissatisfied to friends and family and seek their advice and support

What is social phase characterised by?

Agreement or revelations from family and friends can speed up the dissolution of the relationship

When does grave dressing phase begin?

When the relationship had officially ended - each partner constructs their own socially acceptable justification of why the relationship failed which plays down their contribution

What is grave dressing characterised by?

rewriting history to a more personally acceptable story. Negatively reinterpreting personal traits of the partner that were initially endearing

Who created reduced cues theory?

Sproul and Kessler

Why are virtual relationships less effective according to reduced cues theory?

they lack many of the cues we normally depend on it FtF interaction

CMC particularly lacks cues to our emotional state, such as facial expressions and tone of voice

The abscence of these cues leads to de-individuation

why does the abscence of these cues lead to de-inviduation?

it reduces peoples sense of individual identity, which in turn then encourages disinihibtion in relating to others

VR therefore more likely to involve more blunt and aggressive communcation

Who created the hyperpersonal model?

Walther

Why do VR develop more quickly? (Disclosure)

CMC relationships can develop quickly as disclosure happens earlier than FtF ones, once established theyre more intense and intimate

What is the boom and bust phenomenon?

VR can end more quickly because the high excitement level of interactions is not matched by the level of trust between the relationship partners

Why is self disclosure promoted in virtual relationships?

anonymity.

Baugh points out this is like the strangers on the train effect in FtF RS. When you’re aware the other ppl don’t know your identity, you feel less accountable for your actions.

So you may disclose more about yourself to a stranger than an intimate partner.

What did McKenna and Burgh suggest?

Virtual relationships can be more effective than FtF relationships due to the absence of gating

Why is gating absent in virtual relationships?

They are absent in the virtual world and so allows relationships to get off ground more often than they would offlineh

what is a gate?

any obstacle to the formation of a relationship

A barrier that might put people off from forming a relationship

Eg physical unattractivess, stammer, social anxiety

Why is FtF interaction gated?

it involves many of those features that interfere with the early development of a relationship

What are the 2 effects of the absence of gating in a relationship?

1. refocuses attention on self disclosure and away from what might be considered superficial and distracting features.

2. Means ppl free to create online identities that they couldn’t do FtF. Man can become women. Introvert becomes extrovert

What are the 3 levels of a parasocial relationship?

Entertainment-social

Intense-personal

Borderline-pathological

Entertainment social

Individual views their FC as a source of fun and entertainment

Individuals discuss stories about their FC, read in magazines or watch on TV with friends or other fans

Borderline pathological

Individual believes they have special bond with their FC

Individual fantasises about their FC and may start to stalk them or spend large amounts of money in order to meet them

Perception of homophilly

Parasocial relationships are formed with a celebrity who an individual views to be attractive and similar to themselves

Who created the absorption-addiction model?

McCutcheon

Who is more likely to become absorbed with the life of their favourite celebrity?

Ppl with introverted nature, low self esteem, poor psychologyical adjustment and lack of meaningful relationships

What does absorption enable?

The indivual to effortlessly focus attetention away from themselves and find the fulfilment missing from their own life due to lack of social interaction

What happens if level of absorption is high enough?

Motivational forces driving the apsorption become addictive, leading the individual to display more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking

Eg stalking

Attachemnt theory

Attachment difficulties in early childhood increase vulnerability to forming PSR

Based on Bowlby’s idea early attach difficulty can lead to later social and emotional maladjustment

What did keinlein suggest?

Adults with insecure attachment most likely to form PSR as this type of relationship is not accompanied by threat of criticism, dissapointment and rejection that real life relationships bring