AP PSYCHOLOGY VOCAB — MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

Approach-Approach Conflict

A situation in which a person has to choose between 2 attractive outcomes, possibly leading to feelings of tension or stress

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

A situation in which a person has to choose between 2 undesirable outcomes, possibly leading to feelings of tension or stress

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A situation in which a person has 1 goal with both attractive and unattractive features, possibly leading to feelings of tension or stress

Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A situation in which a person has to choose between 2 options that have desirable and undesirable outcomes, possibly leading to feelings of tension or stress

Joseph Ledoux’s Theory

Suggests we have a fast, automatic response for survival (fear) and a slower, more thoughtful response that can override the initial emotional reaction

3 Components to Emotion

• Physiological arousal

• Cognitive/conscious experience

• Expressive behaviors

James-Lange Theory

• Concept: Emotions occur after physiological reactions

• Process: Stimulus → Physiological Response → Emotion

• Example: You see a bear → Your heart races → You feel fear

• Key Point: Physical reactions cause emotions

Cannon-Bard Theory

• Concept: Emotions and physiological responses happen simultaneously

• Process: Stimulus → Emotion and Physiological Response occur at the same time

• Example: You see a bear → You feel fear and your heart races simultaneously

• Key Point: Both emotions and physical reactions are triggered at the same time

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

• Concept: Emotions result from physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal

• Process: Stimulus → Physiological Response → Cognitive Labeling → Emotion

• Example: Your heart races (physiological response), you think “I must be excited!” (interpretation), and you feel excited

• Key Point: We label our physical responses to identify emotions

Common-Sense Theory

• Concept: Emotions cause physiological reactions

• Process: Stimulus → Emotion → Physiological Response

• Example: You see a bear → You feel fear → Your heart races

• Key Point: Emotions happen first, followed by bodily reactions

Lazarus' Appraisal Theory

• Concept: Emotions are based on cognitive appraisal (interpretation) of a situation

• Process: Stimulus → Appraisal → Emotion

• Example: You see a bear → You assess whether it’s dangerous or not → You feel fear (if you judge it as dangerous) or calmness (if you judge it as harmless)

• Key Point: We appraise situations, which leads to emotional responses

Universal Face Expressions

• Happiness

• Sadness

• Surprise

• Disgust

• Fear

• Anger

• Contempt

Display Rules

A social group/culture’s standards on how to appropriately express emotions

Instinct Theory

• Many non-human animals are motivated by instincts, which humans don’t seem to demonstrate

• Instincts are innate, typically fixed patterns of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli

• Evolutionary perspective

Drive-Reduction Theory

Psychological needs (food, water) → Drive (hunger, thirst) → Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)

• Stems from need to maintain homeostasis

Arousal Theory

• People are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them achieve and maintain optimal levels of arousal

• Optimal state can differ from different people and task to task

Optimal Levels for Easy Tasks

Higher

Optimal Levels for Difficult Tasks

Lower

Yerkes Dodson Law

We perform our best at moderate levels of arousal

Intrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a task comes from within the individual

Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a task comes from external rewards

Incentive Theory

• Extrinsic rewards and punishments motivate behavior

• To seek pleasure and avoid pain

Positive Incentives

• Reward/benefit that encourages behavior

• Positive reinforcement

Negative Incentives

• Consequence/undesirable thing discourages behavior

• Negative reinforcement/punishment

Self Determination Theory

All humans have psychological needs

• Human needs: Individual must get satisfied for optimal wellness, performance, and motivation

• Basic Human Needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness

Autonomy

• Independent decisions aligning with personal values and goals

• Being autonomously motivated increases wellness, performance, and engagement rather than controlled forces

• Controlled motivation: Doing something for reward/avoiding punishment

Competence

When individuals feel more skilled (especially through positive feedback) and can meet their goal, their motivation boosts and would want to continue pursuing that task

Relatedness

When a person feels connected with others and feels like they belong, it helps them stay motivated and engaged in a task

When the basic human needs are met…

Increases in…

• Motivation

• Productivity

• Overall satisfaction

• Positive mental health

• Sense of well-being

• Resilience

Self-Determination Continuum

• Moves from low self-determination (extremely controlled behavior) to high self-determination, where actions are driven by autonomy and intrinsic motivation

• Refers to the degree of personal autonomy and control a person has over their motivation and behavior

Amotivation

• Non-intentional, non-valuing, lack of control

• “I have no desire to do it”

Extrinsic Motivation

• External Motivation

• Introjected Motivation

• Identified Motivation

• Integrated Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation

External Motivation

• Compliance with external rewards and punishments

• “I was told to do it”

• Avoidance of penalties/seeking tangible benefits

Introjected Motivation

• Motivation controlled by guilt, shame, ego enhancement, or self-worth

  • Root cause is from societal expectations and its internalized pressure

• People feel obligated to act, but don’t fully endorse the behavior

Identified Motivation

• Personal importance, conscious valuing

• “Doing it this way will help me achieve my goals”

• Behavior is personally meaningful and valued

• Motivation comes from an external purpose (success)

• Still an external reason for action, but is internalized as important

Integrated Motivation

• Congruence, awareness, and synthesis with self

• “Doing this is part of who I am”

• Behavior reflects one’s identities and core values

• Deep personal commitment to activity

• Externally driven goals

• Not inherently enjoyable, but is personally important

Intrinsic Motivation

• Interest, enjoyment, inherent satisfaction

• “I love this. This feels great!”

• Engaging in an activity for its own sake

• Driven by interest, enjoyment, and inherent satisfaction

Sensation Seeking

The seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations/experience, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience

Experience Seeking

• One who seeks novel experiences through the mind and senses as in music, art, travel, social nonconformity,, and association with like-minded people

• Through mind and senses means engaging in both intellectual processes and sensory experiences to stimulate new perceptions and ideas

Thrill and Adventure Seeking

Unusual and intense experiences through speed and extreme risks

Disinhibition Seeking

• Motivated ways that allow them to act unrestrained without regard for consequences

• Alcohol/drugs

Boredom Susceptibility

Individuals who cannot tolerate any kind of repetitive experience including routine work and boring people

Eating

Complex motivated behavior that demonstrates how physical and mental processes interact

Lateral Hypothalamus

• Stimulates hunger and encourages eating

• Person won’t feel hungry and may lose weight

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

• Makes you stop eating

• Person won’t feel full and may overeat

Ghrelin

Secreted by empty stomach, sending “I’m hungry” messages to brain

Leptin

Secreted by fat cells, and when abundant, it tells cell to decrease feelings of hunger so one stops eating

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

• Our facial expressions can influence our feelings

• When people were forced to smile, they reported feeling happier

• Research testing this hypothesis has produced mixed results

• Supports theories that propose the psychological experience of emotions precedes the cognitive appraisal

Broaden and Build Theory

Positive emotions…

• Broaden thought-action repertoires, encouraging people to explore, play, and connect with others

• Allow for long-term growth, building long-lasting psychological, intellectual, and social resources

• Over time increases resilience, improve well-being, and create an upward spiral of emotion and personal development

Thought-Action Repertoires

Set of thoughts and actions a person can think of and do in a given moment

Negative Emotions

Narrow thought-action repertoires

• With fear, people’s thought-action repertoire is narrowed to escape/fight

• Anger narrows to attacking

• Happens because negative emotions helped ancestors prepare for immediate survival actions

Physical Resources

• Joy is associated with playing

• Young animals play in ways that later help them survive

• Has been linked to predator avoidance and aggressive fighting

Cognitive Resources

• Play increases levels of creativity, theory of mind, and fueling brain development

• Securely attached children (with consistent love and support) show greater persistence, flexibility, and resourcefulness in problem solving

Social Resources

• Social plays builds lasting bonds and attachments

• Strong relationships, built with repeated positive experiences, contribute to long-term well-being, and longevity

Psychological Resources

• Positive emotions fuel psychological resilience

• Positive emotions during difficult experiences predict better long-term coping and well-being