A-level Sociology: Childhood

Who said that the main feature of the modern idea of childhood is separateness?

Pilcher (1995)

What did Pilcher (1995) say?

• The main feature of the modern idea of childhood is separateness.

• Childhood is seen as a separate life stage from adulthood.

• This is emphasised through age-restricted laws and policies, the differences in clothing and the products and services specifically targeted at children.

What phrase did Pilcher (1995) use to describe childhood?

The golden age

What are some criticisms of Pilcher (1995)?

• Wagg (1992): there is no "single universal childhood, experienced by all."

• Ethnocentric and doesn't consider how other cultures view childhood.

• Childhood is a social construct.

Who said that children in non-industrial societies are treated differently from children in modern, western countries?

Benedict (1934)

What did Benedict (1934) say about childhood?

Children in non-industrial societies are treated differently from children in modern, western countries.

What evidence is there to support Benedict's ideas surrounding childhood?

• Punch (2001): found that in rural Bolivia children take work experiences from as young as the age of five.

• Firth (1970): found that within the Tikopia community, children were not expected to be obedient towards adults.

• Malinowski (1957): found that adults in the Trobriand Islands considered children’s sexual activity normal and took an attitude of “tolerance and amused interest.”

What is the idea of the globalisation of western childhood?

• Western ideas of childhood are being globalised and practised in other countries.

• E.g. International humanitarian organisations are imposing Western norms of what childhood should be in other countries.

• These ideas include childhood being a separate life stage, based in the family and school where children are innocent, dependent and vulnerable and have no economic role.

What did Aries (1960) say about childhood in the Middle Ages?

• They used historical paintings to conclude that childhood did not exist in the Middle Ages.

• The only distinction between adults and children in those paintings was their sizes.

• Children were formerly seen as mini-adults who had to work, had the same responsibilities, and were held equally accountable under the law.

Who said that during the Middle Ages, childhood did not exist?

Aries (1960)

What did Shorter (1975) say about historical differences in childhood?

• High infant mortality rates in the past made parents indifferent or neglectful of their children.

• E.g. forgetting how many children they had, referring to them as "it", or giving them the name of a dead sibling.

What did Aries (1960) say about the modern notion of childhood?

• It started developing from the 13th century onwards, due to:

  • schools focusing on educating the young.

  • the church influencing people to perceive children as fragile creations of God.

  • distinctions between adult and children's clothing.

  • handbooks on childrearing and an increase in child-centredness.

• These changes have led to the cult of childhood and he described the 20th century as the century of the child.

How did Pollock (1983) criticise Aries?

It's incorrect to say that childhood didn't exist, rather the people in the middle ages just had a different notion of childhood.

What are the reasons for the changes in children's position? [6]

• Laws restricting child labour - children are no longer economic assets, but rather economic liabilities.

• Compulsory schooling - also made children dependent on their parents and by extending the school leaving age over time has increased this period of dependency.

• Child protection and welfare legislation - Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act (1889), Children Act (1989) Children’s rights - the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) laying down basic rights for children, e.g. protection from abuse.

• Decline in family sizes and infant mortality rate - means that parents are making greater financial and emotional investment in the children they have.

• Children’s development being studied

• Industrialisation - an educated workforce is required, higher standards of living and welfare.

"Who said that childhood is ""disappearing at a dazzling speed""?"

Postman (1994)

What did Postman (1994) say about childhood?

It's disappearing at a "dazzling speed."

What examples did Postmand (1994) give to show that childhood was disappearing?

• Children have the same rights as adults

• Disappearance of children's traditional games.

• Similarities in adults’ and children's clothing.

• Children committing more violent crimes.

What reason did Postman (1994) give for the disappearance in childhood?

The fall of print culture and the rise of television culture.

Outline and explain what Postman said about the information hierarchy?

• In the middle ages, children were apart of adult society because the only skill needed for participation was speech as most people were illiterate.

• Childhood emerged at the same time as the rise of literacy.

• Children could not read, meaning they could not access adult content.

• This created an information hierarchy.

• The rise of digitalised media has destroyed the information hierarchy as children no longer need to be literate to consume adult content.

How did Opie (1993) criticise Postman?

Argued that childhood isn’t disappearing based on research around children’s games, rhymes and songs which showed that a children’s culture separate from adulthood still exists.

What did Jenks (2005) say about childhood?

• Childhood isn't disappearing, only changing. In a postmodern society, adult relationships are becoming more unstable.

• However, the relationship between a parent and child will always exist, making children adults only source of stability.

• So they are more inclined to protect their children.

What do the march of progress view say about the position of children?

• Argues that the position of children in the Western world has and is gradually improving.

• March of Progress sociologists believe that today children are more valued, better cared for, protected and educated.

• E.g. some laws protect children from harm, exploitation, child labour and abuse.

• Babies have a much higher chance of survival.

• Infant mortality rate in 1900 = 154 per 1000 → 4 per thousand

What do the march of progress say that society has become in regards to childhood?

Child-centred

On average, how much do children cost their parents by their 21st birthday?

£227,000

Who said that many children are now experiencing a toxic childhood?

Palmer (2007; 2010)

What did Palmer (2007; 2010) say about childhood?

Children in the UK are experiencing a toxic childhood.

"What did Palmer mean by ""toxic childhood""?"

When the rapid changes in technology and culture are damaging children's physical, emotional and intellectual development. E.g. junk food, computer games, testing in education.

What evidence is there that the UK's children suffers from a toxic childhood?

• The UK's children have above-average rates of obesity, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence and teenage pregnancies.

• UNICEF ranked the UK as 16th out of 29 for children's well-being.

How do conflict views criticise the march of progress view?

• They criticise the march of progress view for being falsely idealistic and ignoring inequalities.

• They argue that there are inequalities among children and between children and adults.

How are there inequalities among children?

• The differences between children of different:

  • genders

  • ethnicities

  • social classes

  • nationalities

What evidence is there that there are inequalities among children of different nationalities?

90% of all low birth-weight babies are born in developing countries.

What evidence is there that there are inequalities among children of different genders?

• Hillman (1993): boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses, and go out after dark by themselves.

• Bonke (1999): girls do more domestic labour, especially in lone-parent families where they do five times more housework than boys.

What evidence is there that there are inequalities among children of different ethnicities?

• Brannen (1994): studied 15 and 16-year-olds and found that Asian parents were more likely to be strict towards their daughters.

• Bhatti (1999): discovered that the idea of izzat (meaning family honour) was common amongst Asians and could be a cause of the tight restrictions surrounding Asian girl.

What evidence is there that there are inequalities among children of different social classes?

• Poor mothers are more likely to give babies with a low birth-weight.

• Children of unskilled manual workers are more likely to suffer from hyperactivity.

• Children born into poor families are more likely to die in infancy or childhood, be shorter, fall behind in school, suffer from long-term illnesses and be placed on a child protection register.

What do we call sociologists who argue in favour of children being freed from their oppression?

Child liberationists

What did Firestone say about childhood?

"Protecting” children from paid work just results in them being dependent on adults and subject to their control.

What did Hold (1974) say about childhood?

Criticises the march of progress view and says that how we are now helping children are just new forms of control and oppression.

What four ways do adults control children?

• Control over children's space

• Control over children's time

• Control over children's bodies

• Control over children's access to resources

In what ways do adults control children's space?

• Adults can control where they can and can't go, and what they do in certain spaces.

• Adults accompany children to more places.

• There is more surveillance surrounding children.

In what ways do adults control children's time?

• Adults control children's daily routines, when they wake up, go to bed, go to school.

• They control the speed at which children grow up.

In what way do adults control children's bodies?

• Adults control how children walk, sit and run.

• They control what they wear and eat.

• Adults take for granted that they are free to touch children in ways that are deemed socially acceptable.

In what ways do adults control children's access to resources?

Children have limited opportunities to earn money, making them dependent on adults.

Who coined the term age patriarchy?

Gittins (1998)

What did Gittins (1998) say about childhood?

Said there are inequalities between adults and children and described this as age patriarchy.

What does the term age patriarch further suggest?

Both children and women suffer under the age patriarchy in the family and it is adult men who exert the power over them.

Which sociological study provides evidence for the age patriarchy?

Humphreys and Thiara (2002): a quarter of the women in their study left their abusing partner because they feared for their children’s lives.

Which sociologists said that children act up because they view childhood as an oppressive life stage that they wish to escape?

Hockey and Allison (1993)

What did Hockey and Allison (1993) say about childhood?

Argued that children act up because they view childhood as an oppressive experience that they wish to escape.

What are examples of acting up?

Exaggerating their age or acting like adults through swearing, smoking, sexual activity etc.

What is the main criticism of the conflict view's stance on childhood?

Some adult control over children is justified as children are not mature enough yet to maintain their safety.

How does the new sociology of childhood criticise structural views of childhood?

The structural views of childhood risk seeing children as passive objects who have no control over their childhood.

What did Mayall (2004) say about other views of childhood?

They were studying childhood from an adultist viewpoint.

How does the new sociology of childhood approach the study of children?

They don't view children as "adults in the making" but rather as their own active agents."

What sociological evidence is there to support the new sociology of childhood?

• Smart (2011): this approach towards childhood should aim to include the views and experiences of children as they are experiencing childhood.

• Tipper and Mason (2008): found that children actively created their own definitions of family, which may not always include what’s considered a “proper” family.

• Smart et al. (2001): children are not just passive victims of divorce, but actually try to make the situation better for everyone.

Who said that other sociologists were studying childhood from an adultist point of view?

Mayall (2004)