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Milner

Biological approach Cognitive approach Case study Research method: Experiment Showed: Localization of function, multi-store memory model

Aim: Effect of large hippocampus removal

Procedure: IQ tests (above average)

MRI Interviews Observing Memory recall tests Learning tasks Results:

Yes-Cognitive map (spatial memory)

Yes-Working memory (conversation) (forgot the convo afterward)

Yes-Remember a number for a long time (only if he repeated it in his head)

No-Episodic knowledge

No-Semantic knowledge

Yes-Memories of his past

No-Make new memories (anterograde amnesia).

Couldn't form new information since the hippocampus turns short-term memories into long-term ones. However, he kept his past memories since those are stored elsewhere. This shows that the hippocampus was specifically in charge of transferring memories since that ability was lost when his hippocampus was damaged.

Strengths: Longitudinal High ecological validity (observed in natural environment)

Weaknesses: Surgery done to cure his epilepsy before some of the data collection. Lot of data might not reflect actual cognitive abilities

Ethical considerations: None. They got his, and his family's consent, and HM's identity wasn't revealed until he died.

Harris and Fiske

Biological approach Sociocultural approach Showed: Localization of function, social identity theory, formation of stereotypes Aim: To observe the role of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala in reacting to extreme out-groups Method: True experiment Procedure: Princeton undergrads divided in 2 groups - 1 saw pictures of people and other saw pictures of objects. Before starting the experiment, they were acquainted with the computer screen, being shown neutral photos and having to if they felt pride, envy, pity, or disgust while looking at it. After that they were in fMRI and were shown several photos of different groups of people ( people with disabilities, rich businessmen, older people, American Olympic athletes, and homeless people) and had to respond with an emotion to each. Results: Brain activity in amygdala plus things showing disgust towards addicts and homeless. Insula activated (activates when looking at non-human objects like trash and shit) AND medial prefrontal cortex (when thinking of people) DIDN’T ACTIVATE. Extreme out-groups like homeless and addicts not seen as people. Evaluation: Social Identity theory might be oversimplified, there’s other factors that impact reaction to out-groups than just “they’re not us”. Strengths: fMRI sees through demand characteristics (can’t pretend to be nice) Weaknesses: Sample size small (can’t generalize)Sample is biased (all American rich Princeton students (intelligence or socioeconomic, cultural influence?)Didn’t check homeless looking at homeless so was it rlly about out-groups?

Maguire

Biological approach Research method: Quasi-experiment. Single-blind (researcher didn't know if she was looking at a driver's MRI or a control's) Showed: Neuroplasticity, localization of function Aim: Effect of learning all New York paths on Taxi drivers' hippocampi and grey matter (hippocampus allows spatial memory, navigation, and turns short term memories into long term in animals, wanted to see if humans too) 16 right-handed, male, taxi drivers & 50 control right-handed men (different ages) Procedure: MRI (VBM and pixel counting of grey matter) Results: Drivers had more. Positive correlation between years of driving and amount of grey matter. Likely causation based on other studies as well. Strengths: Brain scans coded so researchers couldn’t recognize (no researcher bias)Naturally occuring independant variable (ecological validity!) Weaknesses: Participants all males (by chance!) - generalizability

Wedekind

Biological approach Research method: Correlational study Showed: Pheremones, evolutionary approach Aim: If the difference in men's MHC (perceived through Androstadienone from their sweat, detected by womens' vomeronasal organ) affected womens' attraction to them and why Method: Double-blind experiment Procedure: 44 men and 44 women checked if women were on a contraceptive pill or not cos that gives opposite results (they don't know why) They wore same shirt 2 nights, no other smells allowed and woman smelled and rated 1-10. Results: Women (off the pill) far preferred men with a dissimilar MHC since it'd make their children more immune. The theory is that the MHC was somehow gathered from the androstadienone in the men's sweat (especially from their armpits), making women more attracted for survival reasons. Strengths: ReplicableNo researcher bias (double-blind) Weaknesses: Reductionist (Only MHC is dating factor irl? cognitive and sociocultural???)

Weisnman et al.

Biological approach Showed: Depression, genetics Aim: To see how genetic depression is Method: Longitudinal family study Procedure: A large sample of grandchildren, parents, and grandparents were selected (families ranging from high to low risk of depression) and watched them over 20 years. The depressed patients (now grandparents) were selected from a clinic and non-depressed from local community. The original parents and kids were interviwed 4 times before a 3rd generation was introduced. Data was collected from clinicians and researcher triangulation to ensure credibility. Results: High rates of psychiatric disorders (most commonly anxiety) in the grandchildren with two generations of major depression. Lower depression chance if grandparent is depressed but parent isn’t and severities impacted child’s. Depressed parent but fine grandparent didn’t impact grandchild much. Strengths: Longitudinal (more reliability)Research triangulation (taking data in different ways: surveys PLUS asking local clinicians for expert opinions)Large sample Weaknesses: Indicates potential genetic link to behaviour but no actual genotype studied.Large sample but more research needed for reliability

Klinesmith

Biological approach Showed: Hormones, testosterone Aim: To see if testosterone acts as a mediator – a connecting and enabling link – between guns and aggression Method: Correlational study Procedure: Male college students were deceived that they were doing a taste-perception test. One by one, led into a room with a realistic toy gun and told to assemble then disassemble it. Control group assembled complex children’s game. Saliva test taken before handling gun/ game and after. Then “taste perception test” time where water with hot sauce given and had to rate taste intensity (told it was prepared by previous participant). Then asked to prepare one for next participant too Results: Subjects who held handgun showed more testosterone increase and added more hot sauce than toy-guys. Amount of hot sauce positively correlated with testosterone levels. Strengths: Good application (gun control laws)No demand characteristics (participants changing behavior after knowing what experiment is about) Weaknesses: Artrificial environment so low ecological validityGender and age biasNo cause-effect relationship

Prevot et al.

Biological approach Showed: HL Animal Studies, Inhibitory neurotransmitter (GABA), agonist Aim: To see if using a beta blocker (agonist) which activates the α5-GABA receptor sites in the hippocampus would increase the inhibition of neural activity, leading to improved memory function. Gaba is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that decreases neural activity in hippocampus, allowing more efficient working memory (fewer intrusive thoughts!). The beta blocker agonist (drugs, here exogenous) activates gaba receptor site, increasing rate of inhibition, therefore probably increasing memory! Method: Double-blind experiment Procedure: Sample of memory loss mice (from stress or age). Mice were placed alone in a Y-shaped maze. The mice with impaired working memory were more likely to explore the same arm repeatedly and wander aimlessly whereas the control mice explored both arms. Results: In the stressed mice: Mice injected with the agonist (drugged) performed almost as well as the unstressed mice (both did better than the control). In the old mice: Younger mice did better than both drugged old mice and control old mice but drugged old mice did 2nd best. In both cases, there was an improvement in spatial working memory in the mice that were given the GABA agonist. After the study, the mice were sacrificed. The researchers found that the mice with the drug treatment showed new hippocampal cell growth, reversing the effects of stress and aging. Strengths: Experiment done blindly to prevent researcher biasSupports other studies in the role of GABA in dementia Weaknesses: Animal model, apply cautiously to humans Ethics: Helped w/ breakthroughs, animals are inferior BUT that advocates for animal cruelty Expense: Saves human lives, but don’t know if applicable to humans so experiment kinda waste Efficiency: Rats DNA similar (BUT NOT SAME) so efficient Replace animals with computer-generated alternatives Reduce nr of animals used by using data from other animal studies Refine study procedure so they don’t suffer (e.g pain killers)

Bartlett

Cognitive approach Showed: Schema theory, reliability of cognitive process Aim: To investigate how memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge (cultural background) Method: Repeated measures design Procedure: A group of adult British men were told a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts which had unfamiliar themes, names, and story structure to stories they knew. They were then told to repeat the story at different intervals to another British person. Serial reproduction Results: They changed the story while saying it, shortening and changing it more and more each repetition (distortion). Assimilation - Details of the story subconsciously changed to fit British norms (consistent with own cultural schema) Leveling: Omitted details they deemed unnecessary (shorter each time). Sharpening: Added details and emotions they saw fit and included more terms British are familiar with Supports that memories aren’t copies of experiences but reconstructions (not so much unreliable memory as memory can be altered by existing schema). Strengths: Naturalistic material (real story, could come across it irl) Weaknesses: In laboratory, lacks ecological validity?Methodology not strictly controlled (harder to replicate)Did not receive standardized instructions so they might not have known they had to try repeating it as accurately as possibleNo Native American control group to show that that doesn’t happen among them Ethical consideration: Deception. Not told aim.

Strack and Mussweiler

Cognitive approach Showed: Thinking and decision-making (Anchoring bias) Aim: to test the influence of anchoring bias on decision making Method: Simple experiment Procedure: University students picked during lunchtime. Showen screen with 2 questions. 1st asked to make a comparative judgment with the question being the anchor. Did Mahatma Gandhi die before or after the age of 9? [low anchor, implausible]Did Mahatma Gandhi die before or after the age of 140? [high anchor, implausible] Then second condition How old was Mahatma Gandhi when he died? (The actual answer is 78) Results: Those who got high anchor answerd a higher average for condition 2 than the low anchors. GIven no information, they were anchored by the atest most relevant info and numbers. Strengths: Easily replicable and modifiableApplications in persuasion Weaknesses: Ecological validity - artificialAge and location bias

Kruger

Cognitive approach Showed: Thinking and decision makin (Effort heuristic) Aim: Is effort used as a heuristic for quality? Method: Simple experiment Procedure: Half told poem took 4 hours and other 18 (low-effort and high conditions). After reading poems and recording info about it (how long it took, plus other info). Then they had to evaluate if they liked it and it’s quality on a scale and say how much it’s worth to a poetry magazine. Results: The high-effort condition had a slightly higher average in liking/quality points and DOUBLE the price average Strengths: High ecological validityLarge sampleBoth genders Weaknesses: Could have spoken to each other Ethical consideration: Deception (weren’t told the aim but they couldn’t??)

Shallice and Warrington

Cognitive approach Research method: Case study Showed: Working memory model Aim: To illustrate a case where long-term memory remained intact when short-term memory was damaged Procedure: Either visual or oral memory tests which included presenting KF with words, letters and numbers and asking him to recall those. Results: Poor memory of numbers but good on tasks, indicating better long-term memory. Was able to store new info. Recalled 10 new words well even after a few months. The multi-store model predicts that this should not be possible since an intact short-term memory is required to transfer information to the long-term memory. KF remembered visuals better than orals. Transfer of knowledge to long-term memory is not a linear process that always requires an intact short-term memory. Instead, knowledge is processed and transferred through multiple channels. This therefore undermines the multi-store memory model. Strengths: Mundane realism (ecological validity)Controlled variables Weaknesses: Not generalisableNo explanation as to why numbers mem\> words etc. Ethical consideration: None.

Sparrow et al.

Cognitive approach Showed: HL technology - Transactive memory Aim:  to see if knowing that we would have access to saved information later (like we do with the internet) would affect semantic memory (memory of facts and information) Method: Simple experiment Procedure: Participants typed out a buncha random facts. 1 group told it’ll be saved and retrievable later and 2 group told it wouldn’t be saved. Half of the participants were told to press the spacebar to save what they typed to the computer, and that they would have access to what they typed at the end of the task. The other half were told to press the spacebar in order to erase what they just typed so that they could type the next statement.  In addition, half were told to try to remember the statements, and half were told nothing. Results: Group 2 scored better on a test of the random facts Strengths: Failure at replication Weaknesses: Low ecological validity (knew experiment-demand characteristics?). They didn’t gaf about facts (value or interest)Sample uni students - used to memorizing Ethical consideration: None.

Bandura

Sociocultural approach Showed: Social cognitive theory Aim: To investigate whether aggression can be learned through observation and imitation Method: Experiment (matched pairs design - controlled for the children’s agression in different groups) Procedure: Large group of 3-6 year olds (boys AND girls) taken from Stanford Nursery. Their preliminary levels of aggression were assessed on a 5-point scale. Each child was led into a room with a buncha toys and watched 1 of 3 conditions Group 1 watched a model behave aggressively physically or verbally with a Bobo dollGroup 2 watched a model play peacefully with TinkertoysGroup 3 had no model They were then led into another room where they could only play with the toys for 2 minutes before an examiner said those were her toys and she didn’t let other play with them. This was to get the kids mad. They were led into a 3rd room (with 1-way glass) and allowed to play with anything and marked for aggression. Results: Group 1 was more aggressive than 2 and 3 and even did the same aggressive moves as the model. Boys tended to imitate more of the physically-aggressive acts than girls, and were more likely than girls to imitate models of the same gender. girls were more likely to display physical aggression if the model was male. Strengths: Controlled variables Weaknesses: Small sample, all Oxford babies (generalisability)Shows that aggression is learned but doesn’t show that we’re ALSO born with it (not an argument against biological)Lacks ecological validity- Highly controlled

Asch

Sociocultural approach Showed: Social cognitive theory Aim: to test conformity to the majority incorrect opinion in an unambiguous situation. Method: Experiment Procedure: the participants are singled out and sit at the end of a line, the rest of which is researchers (the participants do this in turns so only 1 goes at a time). They’re then presented with a diagram of 3 lines, one of which is clearly the longest, and asked which is the longest. The researchers go first (as they are first in line) and all say the same wrong answer and when it’s the participants’ turn, they either say the right answer, or conform by saying the answer that everyone else said (even if they know that it is wrong). Results: Over many trials, majority of participants conformed at least once, 32% of participants confromed. In control group with no pressure to conform, they 99% of the time got it right. In the interview they all stated that they didn’t think the answer they chose was right but they didn’t want to be ridiculed. Strengths: Easily replicableDoing the control too clearly illustrates normative conformityInterview after ensured that the reason they answered wrong was in fact because of conformity Weaknesses: lacks personal meaning, lacks mundane realism and ecological validityAll university men, not generalisableOld study (american culture changed)

Sherif

Sociocultural approach Showed: Social identity theory, formation of stereotypes, effects of stereotypes Aim: to study informal groups and observe the natural and spontaneous development of group organization, attitudes (prejudice) and group norms. Method: Field experiment Procedure: Camp boys were put in 2 groups randomly. The groups were kept apart and did activities together (naming team, painting shirts) to bond. After the groups bonded, conflict was introduced through a game. Results: They called opposite team stinkers and cheaters, bad mouthing them and solidarity increasing within their own groups (in and out groups). Conflict aroase from a group identity when competing for resources (formation of stereotype). After the match they were told to characterise their own groups and then the other and tended to use negative adjectives for the other and more favorable terms for their own groups. Then to eliminate aggression, both groups had to work for the same goal (fix broken camp bus etc.) and inter-group hostility dissipated since they were no longer competing for resources (racism and resources). Strengths: High ecological validity Weaknesses: Couldn’t control variables like conversations among themselvesDependent variable recorded through self-reports from boys, reliable? Demand characteristics?Oversimplification, not applicable to wars etc.Sampling bias (same age, same culture) Ethical consideration: Not protected from physical and psychological harm

Fein and Spencer

Sociocultural approach Showed: Effects of stereotypes Aim: To see if stereotyping and prejudice would increase when a group of men had their self-image challenged by scores on an intelligence test. Method: Experiment Procedure: A large sample of male participants were asked to take a fake intelligence test. 1 group was told it was fake, and the other took the test and was disappointed by the low scores. They then took a “social judgment test” where they were given 2 scenarios and in both, 31 year old Greg, his career struggles in the arts industry, and his desire to be part of a play and to write one were described. In text 1, he’s said to be living with his girlfriend, Anne. In the second, with his partner. The participants were then asked to fill in a questionnaire describing Greg’s personality, rating traits from 0-10. 3 traits were generic and 7 were stereotypical gay men traits. They were also asked how similar they thought they were to Greg and how likely they are to be his friend. Results: They found that those who received negative feedback on the fake intelligence test rated the “gay implied” man more stereotypically and regardless of the “gay implied” or “straight”, they stated that they would not be friends with him, nor were they like him. However, this dislike for Greg was stronger when the participant received “negative feedback”. Strengths: One strength could be that they used a lot of participants which made the results more reliable.It has a thorough and replicable procedure, making it more reliable, especially through the possibility of redoes. Weaknesses: It lacks ecological validity since questionnaires and stories aren’t real life occurrence (artificial).There was an assumption that the men had a strong self-image and that’s why they rated the man stereotypically.Illusory effect (assumed pattern from coincidence) Perhaps they’ve just encountered gay men like that or have had negative experiences with them.Are they gay?

Fagot

Sociocultural approach Research method: Observational study Showed: Enculturation Aim:  the role that parents may play in gender-role development Method: Naturalistic observational study Procedure: Several white families each with only 1 child participated. Some lived in apartments, others in university housing, and the rest in private homes. The sample had varied income (some were still students). Observers used an observation checklist of several child behaviours and reactions by parents. There were five 60-minute observations completed for each family over a five-week period.  The observer used time sampling, making note of the child's behaviour every 60 seconds and then noting the parents’ response. Two observers were used to establish inter-rater reliability. After the observations were finished, each parent was asked to rate the 46 behaviours as more appropriate for girls, for boys or neutral.  Each parent also filled out a questionnaire on the socialization of sex roles. Results: Boys were more likely to be left alone by their parents than girls.Parents gave boys more positive responses when they played with blocks than they did girls.Parents gave girls more negative responses when they manipulated an object than they did boys.Parents gave more positive responses to girls than boys for playing with dolls and more negative responses to boys.Parents criticized girls more when they participated in large motor activities – e.g. running and jumping.Parents gave more positive responses to girls than boys when they asked for help and a more negative response to boys.Fathers were more concerned with appropriate sex-typing than mothers and both parents found more behaviours appropriate for girls only than for boys only. Parents gave girls more positive responses when they engaged in adult-oriented, dependent behavior. Strengths: Ecological validity since naturalisticLarge age sample2 observers to cross reference and average observations. High inter-rater reliability, little personal biases. Weaknesses: Sampling bias: All white, American, and linked to uni where study conductedSmall sample sizeFamilies knew that they were being watched, could have been stricter cos of that.

Odden and Rochat

Sociocultural approach Research method: Observational study Showed: Enculturation Aim: to investigate the role of observational learning in enculturation Method: Naturalistic observation Procedure: A group of children were longitdunally observed in their cultural context and adults in the child’s life were interviewed on the child’s development. Another group of similar ages was observed in their learning of fishing. Semi structured interviews and the boys took a multiple choice test about Samoan traditions. Results: Despite being too young to fish, the children seemed to have learned the chores by watching elders (parents never told them how). Older kids took fishing equipment and went off fishing without supervision, imitating what they’d seen (they said in the interview). The interviews with the parents showed they didn’t think they had to instruct the kids anyway, it’s not the Samoan way. The kids had picked up basic rituals and cultural concepts. Strengths: Strong validity due to longitudinal and naturalistic Weaknesses: Only Samoans, not applicable to all cultures

Kulkofsky et al.

Sociocultural approach Cognitive approach Showed: Cultural dimensions, emotion and cognition Aim: to see if there was any difference in the rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic and individualistic cultures * Flash Bulb Memories are a distinct form of memory, different from everyday memories To show that FBMs are more vivid, distinct, highly detailed, as opposed to everyday memories. Method: Procedure: China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA studied. Large sample of participants from the 5 countries were given 5 minutes to recall as many memories of public events from their lifetime (at least 1 year back) as they could. Then memory questionairre Where were you when you first learned of the event?What time of day was it?How did you learn about it?What were you doing at the time that you learned about it?Whom were you with? Personal or not- How nationally or internationally important was the event?How personally important was the event?How surprising was the event?How many times have you talked about the event since it happened? Results: In a collectivistic culture like China, personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting FBM, compared with more individualistic cultures that place greater emphasis on an individual's personal involvement and emotional experiences. National importance was equally linked to FBM formation across cultures. Strengths: Avoided interviewer affect by allowing to answer in native tongue (might have triggered more memories this way too!) Weaknesses: Ecological fallacy- Just because Chinese participants didn’t have more FBM for emotional events doesn’t mean it’s because of China’s viewsCan’t be verified if their personal memories actually exist

Berry et al.

Sociocultural approach Showed: Acculturation Aim: to study how well immigrant youth adapt to their new cultures, from a psychological and sociocultural viewpoint, and whether this is related to acculturation strategies and profiles. Method: Procedure: Large sample of youth from various cultures given questionnaire about acculturation and adaptation. Had to on a scale agree or disagree. Psychological prompts included “I’m satisfied with my life” and sociocultural “I feel uneasy going to school” Results: Participants in the integration profile followed the integration strategy for acculturation.Participants in the national profile generally followed the assimilation strategy.Participants in the ethnic profile followed the separation strategy.Participants in the diffuse profile followed an unclear mix of separation, assimilation and marginalisation (but not integration). Integration was the most successful acculturation strategy, as it was linked to more positive psychological and sociocultural adaptation. However, separation also led to positive psychological adaptation, as evidenced by the ethnic profile in the data. This suggests that involvement in both the heritage culture and the new culture is associated with more positive adaptation Strengths: Good applications to quality of life and marginalisation in countries Weaknesses: Self report- demand characteristics

Becker et al.

Sociocultural approach Showed: HL Globalisation eating disorders Aim: To observe if television access to content of the world would impact eating disorders Method: Natural experiment (they didn’t introduce tvs, it was happening anyway) Procedure: the behaviours of the participants were measured prior to the introduction of television into their culture. 2 samples of fijian teenage girls were studied. The first group was tested again weeks after and the other 3 years later. A survey deteming eating habits (EAT-26) was given to both of them. Weight and height were measured and semi-structured interviews to check if any symptoms of eating disorders were coming thorugh. Group 2 was also asked additional questions about body image and dieting. Results: For group 1 (weeks after) dieting was rare and they had an average EAT-26 score but group 2 had 79% dieting, high reports of self-induced vomiting and overall higher numbers of EDs, reporting they felt “too fat”, mostly becuase of the television they stated and that they thought they could get more jobs if they were skinny which was hard when their parents expected them to eat so much. Strengths: Naturalistic so high ecological validity Weaknesses: Cannot be replicated so low reliabilitySelf reported surveys and not diagnoses for anorexiaNot same participants in group 1 and 2 so maybe group 2’s participants had EDs to begin withCan’t isolate television as fault, what about peer pressure?

Norasakkunit & Uchida

Sociocultural approach Showed: Acculturation, HL effects of globalisation, failure of assimilation leading to marginalisation Aim:  to explain the origins of hikikomori Method: Correlational study Procedure: A sample of Japanese university students were given a test to see how many symptoms of hikikimori they displayed. They were then given a test to see their opinions on social conformity and social harmony, and a test to see wether they agreed more with collectivist and socially harmonic ideas or with individualistic and achievement. Results: both those with a high chance of hikikimori and those without agreed that social harmony and conformity are important in Japan. However, those with at higher risk of hikikimori stated that they wanted to be less socially harmonic and conformed that the rest of Japanese society is. From this, they gathered that Japanese society but ostracize these high-risk students for opposing the common idea of conformity and as a result, they go into recluse, not able to fit into their own culture or into the global culture. The data shows a strong correlation between students at high risk for hikikimori and being more individualistic in a collectivist society (and therefore not fitting in) Strengths: Large sampleKind of natural study Weaknesses: No proof that causationData self presentedIs it applicable to all marginalized cultures?