Unit 5 - Cognition

Intelligence

A mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

G Factor

A general intelligence factor discovered by Charles Spearman, suggesting that if a person excels in one area, they are likely to excel in others.

Multiple Intelligences

The theory proposed by Howard Gardner that describes at least seven different types of intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg's model comprising three types of intelligence: creative, analytical, and practical.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively, considered by some to be a better predictor of success than IQ.

Mental Age

A concept introduced by Alfred Binet, representing the age at which a person is expected to know a certain amount of information.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

A score derived from standardized tests designed to measure intelligence, calculated as (mental age/chronological age) X 100.

The Flynn Effect

The observed rise in intelligence test scores over time, necessitating periodic recalibration of tests to maintain an average score of 100.

Reliability

The consistency of a test's results across different administrations or interpretations.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is intended to measure or predict.

Crystallized Intelligence

The accumulated knowledge a person has acquired and their ability to access that knowledge.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.

Bias in Testing

The presence of factors that unfairly influence test results, including the stereotype threat, which affects performance based on social stereotypes.

Charles Spearman

Used factor analysis and discovered that what we see as many different skills is actually one General Intelligence.

Aptitude

Measure ability or potential. SAT correlates +.82 with general intelligence scores

achievement

Tests that measure what you have learned.

standardization

Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretest group

normal curve

The symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes.

Average intelligence

100 with SD of 15

savant syndrome

a condition where a person has limited mental ability but is exceptional in one area

delayed gratification

Perceive emotions

Understand emotions

Manage emotions

Use emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking

Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.

Creative intelligence

reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas

analytical intelligence

assessed by intelligence test, ability to find solutions to problems

practical intelligence

everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined

content validity

The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

predictive validity

How does the test predict what it is intended to predict

heritability

intelligence appears to be polygenetic (many genes involved)

Researches have pinpointed some specific gens that relate to intelligence and learning disabilities

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on stereotypes

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without explicit cues, often used in fill-in-the-blank or essay tests.

Recognition

Identifying the target information from available options, commonly seen in multiple-choice tests.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in the memory system.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into consciousness.

Sensory Memory

A short-term holding area for all sensory information, lasting only a moment.

Short Term Memory (STM)

Memory that holds about 7 items for about 20 seconds, encoded from sensory memory.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The system responsible for the storage of information over lengthy periods.

Explicit Memory

Type of long-term memory that involves conscious recall, including facts and experiences.

Implicit Memory

Type of long-term memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness, including skills and tasks.

Chunking

The process of organizing items into manageable units to aid memory retention.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques that assist memory retention by translating information into a more memorable format.

Ebbinghaus’s Rehearsal Study

Research that demonstrated the importance of repetition in learning and memory retention.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better recall items presented at the end of a list.

Serial Positioning Effects

The influence of the order of information on recall performance.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that arises from repeated stimulation.

Flashbulb Memories

Highly detailed, vivid memories of significant events, often emotionally charged.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after a traumatic event.

Retroactive Interference

When new information disrupts the recall of old information.

Proactive Interference

When old information interferes with the learning of new information.

Source Amnesia

When a person cannot remember the source of their knowledge or memories.

Misinformation Effect

When misleading information is incorporated into one’s memory of an event.

Prospective Memory

The ability to remember to perform planned actions in the future.

parallel processing

ability of our brain to process multiple aspects of a thing at once

semantic

facts memorized

episodic

events and experiences

working memory

We focus on certain stimuli based on their importance or how novel they are.

We then process that incoming information, and retrieve long term information.

The working memory then associates new and old information to solve problems.

effortful processing

done on purpose

studying for test, forced memorization

rehearsal

Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.

spacing effect

we learn better when we space it out

relearning

it is easier to learn something again if you have learned it in the past

testing effect

frequent testing helps with memory

automatic processing

without effort

ex. remembering what you ate for breakfast space, time, frequency

Structural Encoding

What it looks like

Phonemic Encoding

encoding of the sound

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning and comparing it to other things

mood-congruent memory

we recall memories that go with our mood

bad mood = bad memories

State Dependent Memory

memory that is recalled under the consciousness conditions it was formed

Priming

To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you first need to activate one of the strands that lead to it, a process called priming

Retrograde amnesia

refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma

Cognition

Refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, impeding problem solving.

Algorithm

A rule that guarantees the right solution to a problem, usually using a formula.

Heuristics

A general rule that can help make judgments or solve problems quickly but may lead to errors.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging a situation based on how similar aspects are to prototypes.

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of a situation based on the availability of information in memory.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often based on past success.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.

Insight

A sudden and novel realization of a solution to a problem.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Confirmation Bias

Looking for evidence to confirm beliefs and ignoring evidence that contradicts them.

Gambler's Fallacy

Mistaken belief that a random event is more likely to happen in the future due to its occurrence's frequency.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgments.

Framing

The way a problem is presented can drastically affect how it is perceived.

Intuition

An effortless, immediate thought or feeling, contrasting with explicit reasoning.

Exaggerated Fear

A tendency for ill-founded fears to arise about potential negative outcomes.

Divergent Thinking

Used to solve problems that have multiple solutions, requiring creativity.

Convergent Thinking

Used to find a single best solution to a problem or question.

Inductive Reasoning

Makes broad generalizations from specific observations.

Deductive Reasoning

Starts with a general statement and examines possibilities to reach a specific conclusion.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Belief Bias

The tendency for beliefs to distort logical reasoning, potentially leading to invalid conclusions.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

concept

mental grouping of similar things

ex. birds- pigeon, crow, robbin, blue bird

prototype

the best example of a concept

ex our concept of a bird is usually a robin

prospective memory

the ability to remember to perform an intended action in the future