Studied by 13 people
How does the temperature effect the rate of photosynthesis?
At low temperatures, the enzymes work at a slower pace and at high temperatures the enzymes will denature- the rate of reaction decreases rapidly.
What is the ideal temperature needed for photosynthesis?
45 degrees.
How does carbon dioxide effect photosynthesis?
The amount of carbon dioxide will only increase the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain point. After reaching the point, carbon dioxide is no longer the limiting factor.
How does light level effect photosynthesis?
If the light level is raised, the rate of photosynthesis increases steadily to a certain point. Overall, it does not make much of a difference.
What are the two main stages of photosynthesis?
Energy transferred by light is used to split water into oxygen gas and hydrogen ions. Carbon dioxide then combines with the hydrogen ions to make glucose.
What time of reaction is photosynthesis?
Endothermic
What is the balanced symbol equation for photo synthesis?
Where does photosynthesis occur?
Photosynthesis happens inside chloroplasts- they contain chlorophyll which absorbs the light.
What is glucose used for in plants?
Some of the glucose is used to make larger, complex molecules that the plants need to grow. These make up the organism's biomass.
What happens during photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms (e.g green plants and algae) use the energy from the sun to make glucose.
How are lipids broken down in the body?
Lipids are broken down by enzymes in the small intestine.
What do lipids contain?
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms.
What are lipids made up of (in regards to fats and oils)?
Glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
How are proteins broken down in the body?
Proteins are broken down by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine.
What are amino acids made of?
Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms
What are proteins made of?
Proteins are polymers that are made up of long chains of monomers called amino acids.
How are carbohydrates broken down in the body?
Carbohydrates are digested/broken down by enzymes in the mouth and small intestine.
How can polymer molecules be broken down back into sugars?
When the chemical bonds between the monomers are broken.
How are carbohydrates made?
Monomers (simple sugars e.g glucose or fructose) can be joined together in long chains, polymers, to make large, complex carbohydrates.
What are carbohydrates made up of?
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
What is the equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and fungi?
Glucose --> Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide.
Why do plants sometimes have to resort to anaerobic respiration?
If the soil is water-logged, plant root cells respire anaerobically as there is little to no oxygen.
What is the word equation for anaerobic respiration in animals?
Glucose --> Lactic Acid
What is anaerobic respiration?
'Anaerobic' means "without oxygen".
What is the equation for aerobic respiration?
Glucose + Oxygen --> Carbon Dioxide + Water
What is aerobic respiration?
Aerobic respiration is what happens when there's plenty of oxygen available. It is the most efficient way to transfer energy from glucose.
How can cells respire?
Cells can respire using glucose as a substrate, but organisms can also break down other organic molecules (e.g carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) to use as substrates for respiration.
How is respiration controlled?
Respiration is controlled by enzymes.
What can effect the rate of respiration?
The rate of respiration can be effected by temperature and pH.
What type of reaction is respiration?
Exothermic (because it transfers energy to the surroundings).
How does substrate concentration effect the rate of reaction?
The higher the substrate concentration, the faster the reaction but only to a certain extent.
How does enzyme concentration effect the rate of reaction?
Increasing the concentration of the enzyme increases the rate of reaction but in some cases there are more than enough enzyme molecules to deal with the available substrate, so adding more enzymes would have no further effect.
How does pH effect enzymes?
If the pH is too high or too low, it interferes with the bonds holding the enzyme together which changes the shape of its active state- causing it to denature.
What is the optimum pH for enzymes?
The optimum pH is often 7 but not always, e.g pepsin is an enzyme used to break down proteins in the stomach and it works best at a pH of 2.
What is an enzymes optimum temperature?
37 degrees (body temperature).
How does temperature effect enzymes?
A higher temperature increases the rate at first.
What happens if an enzyme loses its shape?
It cannot catalyse the reaction.
What makes up a cell's metabolism?
Respiration, photosynthesis and protein synthesis and these reactions need to be carefully controlled.
How can you speed up the reactions which occur in a cell's metabolism?
Usually, you can speed up the reaction by raising the temperature.
How are enzymes specific?
They have an active site where it joins on to its substrate. They all have their own specific substrate.
What happens if an enzyme's active site does not match the substrate?
The reaction will not be catalysed.
What is the term used to describe an enzyme's active site bonding to its substrate?
Lock and Key hypothesis.
What are enzymes mainly used for?
They are usually used as biological catalysts as they reduce the need for high temperatures and they speed up chemical reactions in the body.
What happens in protein synthesis?
In the nucleus, the two DNA strands unzip around the gene. The DNA is used as a template to make mRNA. Base pairing ensures it is complementary. This is transcription. The mRNA molecule moves of of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. Amino acids that match the triplet codes on mRNA join together. This makes the protein coded for by the gene. This is called translation.
What is transcription?
Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).
What is translation?
Translation is a step in protein biosynthesis wherein the genetic code carried by mRNA is decoded to produce the specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Where are proteins synthesised?
Proteins are synthesised in the cytoplasm.
What are proteins made?
Proteins are made from chains of molecules called amino acid. Each protein has its own specific number and order of amino acids.
What is a polymer?
A polymer is a large complex molecule composed of long chains of monomers joined together.
What is a monomer?
Monomers are small, basic molecular units.
What do nucleotides contain?
Sugar and phosphate. The base of a each nucleotide is the only part of the molecule that varies. The base is attached to the sugar.
What are the complementary base pairs?
A(denine) pairs with T(hymine) C(ytosine) pairs with G(uanine)
What shape is DNA?
A double helix.
What are the two DNA strand made up of?
The two DNA strands are made up of nucleotides joined together in a long chain called polymers.
What do animal cells contain?
Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Mitochondria, Cell Membrane
What is the function of a nucleus?
It contains DNA and controls the cell's activity.
What is the function of cytoplasm?
Cytoplasm is a gel like substance where chemical reactions occur.
What is the function of the mitochondria?
It is the site of cellular respiration and it contains enzymes which are needed for chemical reactions.
What is the function of the cell membrane?
It holds the cell together and controls what goes in and out of the cell by providing a selective barrier. They contain receptor molecules that are used for cell communication.
What is a prokaryote?
Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler cells.
What is a eukaryote?
Eukaryotes are complex cells.
What is the equation for magnification?
Magnification=image size/real size.
What are chromosomes?
Chromosomes are long molecules of coiled up DNA. The DNA is divided up into short sections called genes.
What do bacterial cells contain?
Chromosomal DNA, Plasmids and a Cell Membrane.
What is the function of chromosomal DNA?
It is one long circular chromosome which controls the cells activities and replication. It floats in the cytoplasm.
What is the function of a plasmid?
A plasmid is a small loop of extra DNA that is not a part of the chromosome. Plasmids contain genes for things like drug resistance and it can be passed on between bacteria.
What do plant cells have that animal cells do not?
Cell wall, chloroplasts.
What is the function of the cell wall?
It provides support and it is made up of cellulose.
What are the functions of chloroplasts?
They carry out photosynthesis (it's where it occurs) and they contain chlorophyll.
What is the cell cycle?
It is when cells in the body divide to produce more cells, so your body can grow and replace damaged cells and cells grow and divide over and over again.
What are the three separate growth stages called?
G, S and G2
What is 'gap phase one'?
At this phase, the cell grows and new cell structures and proteins are made.
What is the 'S' phase?
At this phase, cells replicate its DNA, so that when it splits during mitosis and the two new cells will contain identical DNA.
What is 'gap phase two'?
At this phase, cells keep growing and proteins needed for cell division are made.
Where does the cell cycle start and end?
With mitosis.
Define mitosis.
Mitosis is when a cell reproduces itself by splitting to form two identical offspring.
What is the first stage of mitosis?
The cell has two copies of its DNA all spread out in long strings.
What is the second stage of mitosis?
The DNA forms X-shaped chromosomes. Each 'arm' of a chromosome is an exact copy of the other. This happens before the cell divides.
What is the third stage of mitosis?
The chromosomes then line up at the center of the cell and cell fibers pull them apart. The two arms of each chromosome go to opposite ends of the cell.
What is the fourth stage of mitosis?
Membranes from around each of the sets of chromosomes. these become nuclei of the two new cells.
What is the fifth and final stage of mitosis?
The cytoplasm divides; two new cells containing exactly the same DNA as they're genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
What is differentiation?
Differentiation is the process by which a cell changes to become specialised for its job.
What is an example of differentiation in plants?
Palisade leaf cells carry out photosynthesis as they contain chloroplasts. Their tall shape means that they have a lot of surface area exposed down the side for absorbing carbon dioxide from the air in the leaf, and their thin shape means that you can fit loads of them in at the top of a leaf, so they're nearer the light.
What is an example of differentiation in animals and humans?
A sperm's function is to get the male DNA to the female DNA during reproduction. Sperm have long tails and streamlined heads to help them swim, they contain lots of mitochondria to provide them with energy and they have enzymes in their heads to digest through the egg's cell membrane.
What do specialised cells in multicellular organisms do in order to carry out their function?
In multicellular organisms, specialised cells are grouped together to form tissues- groups of cells working together to perform a particular function. Different tissues work together to form organs. Different organs make up an organ system.
What is an example of an undifferentiated cell?
Stem cells are undifferentiated but depending on what instructions they're given, they can divide by mitosis to become new cells, which then differentiate.
Why are embryonic stem cells so important for growth and repair?
They have the potential to become any kind of cell.
Where can you find stem cells in the body?
In adults, stem cells can be found in bone marrow. You can also find them in the umbilical cord.
What is the main disadvantage of stem cells?
They cannot turn into any type of cell.
What are the only cells in plants that divide by mitosis?
Meristems- they are found in plant tissues.
Where is meristem tissue found in the plant?
Anywhere in the plant thats growing- e.g the roots and shoots.
What type of cells do meristems produce?
They produce unspecialised cells that are able to divide into any cell type in the plant and they act like embryonic stem cells.
What can the unspecialised cells in the plant become?
They can become specialised and form tissues like xylem and phloem.
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the net (overall) movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
In what states can diffusion occur?
Liquids and gases as the particles are free to move around.
What type of molecules can diffuse through the cell membrane?
Very small molecules like glucose, amino acids, water and oxygen.
What is the first step of diffusion?
Particles move through the cell membrane from where there is a higher concentration to where there is a lower concentration and they are moving in random motion.
What is active transport?
Active transport is the movement of particles across a membrane against a concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration using ATP released during respiration.
How does active transport work in the digestive system?
When there is a higher concentration of nutrients in the gut they diffuse into the blood but sometimes there is a lower concentration of nutrients in the gut than in the blood. Active transport allows nutrients to be taken into the blood, despite the concentration gradient being the wrong way. This stops us from starving.
What does active transport need in order to take place?
ATP from respiration.
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