IB History - Consolidation and maintenance of power in Authoritarian States (Paper 2)

Consolidation and maintenance of power:

- Use of legal methods;

- Use of force

- charismatic leadership

- dissemination of propaganda

- Nature/extent of opposition

- treatment of opposition

- The impact of the success of foreign policy on the maintenance of power

- the impact of the failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power

Use of legal methods (Hitler)

- from the death of Hindenburg onwards, when Hitler abolished the Weimar Republic's offices of President and Chancellor and ruled as Führer, he decided what the law was

- Feb 1933, Hindenburg introduced decree allowing imprisonment without trial for anyone deemed dangerous to the state

- Like most societies, German society had, in addition to a legal system providing justice through the courts, a concept of 'people's justice'. When Hitler crushed the SA and executed Ernst Röhm in 1934, he was regarded as having meted out justice and restored law and order

- Enabling Act allowed Hitler to issue laws without parliamentary approval.

- law courts were no longer impartial, biased in favour of Nazism

- 1933 Civil Service Law, judges whose political beliefs conflicted with Nazism lost their jobs

- Lawyers had to be members of Nazi Lawyers association, required to study Nazi ideology, so lawyers would always interpret the law in favour of Nazism

- law re-interpreted according to will of the Fuhrer

Use of legal methods (Mao)

- state constitution of 1954 provided framework for legal system based on USSR

- committee of NPC was given power to appoint/dismiss judges

- each citizen given right to a public trial and defence by 'people's lawyer'

- However, none of this was actually practiced under Mao

- party committees replaced courts, belief that different standards should be applied to class enemies

- so-called 'back categories' of people were disenfranchised. These included 'reactionary elements', 'feudal elements', 'lackeys of imperialism', 'bureaucratic capitalists', and 'enemies of the people'. These purposely vague categories allowed the CVCP to deny the vote as and where they pleased.

Use of legal methods (comparisons)

- legal systems both entirely under control of authoritarian government, had to abide by state ideology

Use of legal methods (contrasts)

- citizens given right to a public trial and defence by 'people's lawyer' in China; in Germany, decree allowing imprisonment without trial for anyone deemed dangerous to the state

Use of force (Hitler)

- Force is very selective: party opponents, not the population at large. (sets the tone for use of force in Nazi Germany).

- when Hitler became Chancellor: used violence in conjunction with a propaganda campaign funded by the resources of the state in a bid to win an outright majority in the Reichstag. The SA, perhaps four million strong, was deployed to stop the Communist Party and other opposition groups from voting. (Nazis only increased vote to just over 43%)

- Hitler then used force and intimidation outside and inside the Reichstag to obtain the majority he needed to secure the passing of the Enabling Act, which allowed him to issue laws without parliamentary approval.

- The SS under Himmler were a more favoured alternative

30 June 1934: Night of the long knives. Indiscriminate force under SA ends. The more targeted and insidious approach of the SS was favoured

- SS selective targeting of groups. Political, Religious

- exlpoited psychology of fear to maintain control

- SS was main body of control, the Gestapo investigated opponents throughout Germany, used torture as a method to extract information from people.

- SS held suspects without trial and a large number of people disappeared after being arrested.

- They relied on ordinary people to denounce others to create a more fearful atmosphere in the country.

Use of force (Mao)

- deliberately cultivated atmosphere of vigilance, uncertainty and fear

- policing very prevalent during cultural revolution, CCP had central investigations department/military intelligence wing of PLA

- however, PRC never had highly centralised security apparatus, Mao relied on mass campaigns and expected that individuals would expose those who did not abide by his regime (that people would police each other)

- reign of terror to eradicate Tibetan national identity, destroying traces of language/culture, repressed people

- used repressive methods such as group criticism/struggle sessions organised daily or weekly

- labour camps as punishment, built in inhospitable regions, helped terrify others into obedience, as families of those arrested were deemed guilty by association by neighbors

Use of force (comparisons)

- both states v. repressive

- both used ordinary people reporting on each other to cultivate atmosphere of fear

Use of force (comtrasts)

- far greater emphasis on secret police to maintain order in Nazi Germany, compared to PRC where emphasis was placed on people to police each other and lacked central security apparatus

- Nazi force more targeted towards specific groups not population at large eg. Political, Religious, Opposition; in China, nobody was safe, not even gov. officials and there was atmosphere of fear/uncertainty (eg. Deng Xiaoping forced to withdraw from public life during Cultural Revolution)

Role of the charismatic leadership (Hitler)

- Hitler was seen as the solution to many of the problems faced by Germany following the war and the depression

- Reduction in unemployment and gradual overturning of Versailles made many feel that Germany was becoming stronger

- exploited his charisma in propaganda

- charisma used to place him above the realm of normal politics in the minds of most Germans

- This guaranteed that he escaped criticism for what was happening at ground level: people thought that Hitler would correct abuses of power in German society if only he knew they were happening

- H was a charismatic public speaker, making promises to German public, earning him support

- by the time Enabling Act was passed, amount of support for Hitler was unimportant in maintenance

Role of the charismatic leadership (Mao)

- Cult of Personality formed around Mao, taking physical form after 1949 in portraits, posters and statues in towns and villages (peaked in CR)

- Mao was a figurehead for the party, great emphasis placed on Mao as a leader through propaganda

- Mao's image was seen throughout China, and his speeches, writings and teachings were promoted and greatly important.

- Even after the Great Leap Forward he was not heavily criticized.

- Mao's authority was promoted by the Gang of Four

Role of the charismatic leadership (comparisons)

- both leaders were charismatic

- charisma of both was boosted through propaganda

- charisma placed both of them above realm of normal politics/other politicians ineyes of public

Role of the charismatic leadership (contrasts)

- Mao's ideology/teachings (cult of personality) was emphasized more in China

- Mao's cult of personality took time to grow, Hitler's was present earlier on

Dissemination of propaganda (Hitler)

- under control of Goebbles, H believed masses could be won over through regular exposure to propaganda throughout daily life

- but it was never used on its own to consolidate his hold on power. Rather, propaganda was used to try to create and reinforce a collective mentality which allowed Hitler to use force against perceived enemies of the Nazi state, such as communists, members of non-mainstream religious groups and Romany

- spread through press, which was highly controlled through censorship

- Nazis made extensive use of radio as medium for reinforcing Nazi rule, with Reich Broadcasting company controlling all broadcast

- posters placed in offices/public buildings

- Heil Hitler became common greeting

- cinema only expressed Nazi principles

- it was the UBIQUITY of propaganda that played some role in strengthening the regime

- successfully led to growth of Nazi ideology, particularly spread of anti-Semitism and led to greater enthusiasm for war effort

Dissemination of propaganda (Mao)

- Aimed to attack old ways of thinking/strengthen CCP control across China, as well as bring about great reform so population would support mass campaigns such as Great Leap Forward

- used to spread ideology, encourage activism

- PLA (army) used to indoctrinate/reinforce political messages

- targeted against other nations eg. USA and USSR

- spread through posters, media, film, literature, radio, TV as well as through local groups

- nationwide system of loudspeakers in every village

- reading newspapers regarded as political obligation

- Mao made figure of reverence, great importance placed on his speeches

- importance of Little Red Book

Dissemination of propaganda (comparisons)

- Both used to solidify power

- both used any media form possible to spread propaganda, ubiquitous in daily life

- used to enforce regime's way of life (Nazism, Maoism)

Dissemination of propaganda (contrasts)

- Mao had more of a need to consolidate power using propaganda compared to Hitler, as CCP hadn't controlled 2/3 of China geographically

- Greater emphasis placed on Mao's speeches/ideology compared to Hitler, China more ideologically based

- Germany more technologically developed, more people had access to radio, not forced into daily lives like China through loudspeakers

- Use of history: Hitler celebrated where Mao tried to destroy

Nature/extent of opposition (Hitler)

- Private: individuals would read banned literature, protect Jews, refuse to contribute to campaigns, listen to foreign media etc.

- Public: socialists continued to distribute anti-Nazi leaflets/write slogans (rival political parties)

- actions of judges refusing to administer Nazi justice, churchmen such as Bishop Galen/Dietrich Bonhoeffer

- Kreisau Circle engaged in discussion as to how to remove Hitler

- also festered in army, between 1940-1944, 6 attempt on 's life were made led by army officers

- unis also centres for student opposition

Nature/extent of opposition (Mao)

- groups viewed as opposition by CCP included POLITICAL: GMD, former GMD supporters,

- RELIGIOUS: Buddhism in Tibet, Muslims in the west bordering Mongolia and Christianity,

- SOCIAL/CLASS: Landlords and businessmen

- (criminals, members of religious sects whose teachings were deemed anti-communist, and against suspected GMD members and sympathisers)

- there was not widespread/active opposition from all of these groups

- there as active opposition however, Rebellions, especially in the south to resist grain requisitioning and land reform when CCP first came to power

Nature/extent of opposition (comparisons)

- both states viewed religious/racial minorities, such as Tibetans and Jews as opposition

- political opposition

Nature/extent of opposition (contrasts)

- opposition in Germany more active, eg. private opposition with individuals accessing banned media

- assassination attempts made on Hitler, Mao did not experience this as much

Treatment of opposition (Hitler)

- dealt with potential opposition of army, after Hindenburg died, the army swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler personally

- civil service after the death of Hindenburg, was made to swear an oath: suspected opponents were sacked

- oaths of loyalty were a shrewd move in a cultural context in which oaths were taken seriously

- groups like Gestapo in charge of arresting dissidents/opposition in Nazi state

- rival political parties, such as Communists, were banned

- newspapers either banned or rendered mouth pieces of Goebbles

- put on trial, executed, sent to concentration camps

- Germans convicted of political crimes were placed in prison

Treatment of opposition (Mao)

- Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries campaign: focused on those with links to GMD, religious sects etc. there were denunciations and public executions

- Ban of political, religious and semi-religious organizations

- Mass hearings and punishments (urban), speak bitterness (rural)

- individuals forced to take part in public humiliation and struggle sessions to bring them into line. 2-3 million people committed suicide, as the group pressure and isolation in a shame culture were unbearable

- Opposition sent to forced labour camps, terrify opposition into obedience

- Mass killings; two million landlords were murdered by the peasants (encouraged by communist cadres) as a result of the land reform

- Early 1954, began CCP party purges around launch of 5 year plan.

- The '3 Antis' campaign of 1951 and the '5 Antis' campaign of 1952 targeted those denounced by fellow citizens for bribery, corruption, waste, tax-evasion, economic espionage and cheating in government contracts.

Treatment of opposition (comparisons)

- both used extreme violence to tackle opposition

-

Treatment of opposition (contrasts)

The impact of the success of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (Hitler)

- Aim: uniting the German people, overthrow of Versailles, pursuit of 'Lebensraum'; evidence of success in these aims

- Foreign policy achievements were aimed at overturning Versailles. His success in doing this improved his popularity (eg. Withdrawal from the league of nations, The Saar plebiscite, Rearmament of Germany, Remilitarization of the Rhineland)

- also popular because they came without a blood price

- also succeeded in acquiring more German territory and expanding Germany's influence

- did not face major repercussions/obstacles from Britain and France until Polish Crisis, allowing H to become more ambitious in his foreign policy

The impact of the success of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (Mao)

- AIMS: Mao wanted China to gain recognition as a powerful independent state on the world stage. Gain nuclear/greater military capability

- China did gain more international prestige through performance in Korean War

- early success with Sino-Soviet relations Treaty of Friendship (1945), laid the foundations for economic assistance from the USSR to China during the first five year plan, it involved loans from the Soviet Union to China (with high interest rates) and the deployment of thousands of Soviet 'advisers' to China.

- eventually achieved good diplomatic relations with USA with Nixon's tour in 1972

The impact of the success of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (comparisons)

- both successful in foreign military ventures such as Korean War, and Remilitarization of Rhineland, through which they gained international prestige (good and bad)

The impact of the success of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (contrasts)

- Germany aimed to expand/reverse terms of Treaty of Versailles; China aimed to gain international prestige

- China aimed to receive support from other powers (eg. USSR), Germany only did with Nazi-Soviet Pact

The impact of the failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (Hitler)

- Aggressive foreign policy was eventually what caused WW2, with B+F interfering with his foreign policy

- WW2 would eventually lead to collapse of Nazi state, long term failure of foreign policy

The impact of the failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (Mao)

- AIMS: gain support from USSR to ensure China's security

- The Korean War placed a strain on Sino-Soviet relations as Mao felt that China made greater sacrifices in the support of North Korea than had the Soviet Union. Lowest point in relations was in 1969 when a minor incident sparked a war at the Sino-Soviet border (the threat of nuclear war ended the conflict).

- CCP victory ushered in decades of tension with the USA, its traditional Western imperialist enemy. Anti-American campaigns intensified during the Korean civil war and the cultural revolution. Tension heightened by China's moral and diplomatic support of USA's enemies in the Vietnam war.

The impact of the failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (comparisons)

- both saw deterioration of relations with other nations due to military foreign policy (G; pursuit of Lebensraum/China; Korean War)

The impact of the failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power (contrasts)

- Hitler's failure was due to defeat in WW2; China's failure was mainly due to bad relations with USA/USSR

- China much more successful in long term with fp, did end up becoming globally recognized superpower (SUCCESS); Nazi Germany failed in end as it was defeated after WW2