Social psych 2

lesson 2

What can humans still do better than machines?( 4 things)

• Understand social behavior

• Interpret emotions & intentions

• Use context flexibly

• Make nuanced social judgments
  Machines lack human-level social cognition.

What are the 2 types social cognition ( 2 modes of thinking)

Automatic thinking: fast, effortless, unconscious

Controlled thinking: slow, deliberate, conscious

what is automatic thinking?

1. fast

2. effortless

3. unconscious processing based on experience

what is controlled thinking?

slow

deliberate

conscious

effortful thought used for complex decisions

what are schemas?

A mental blueprint or framework for organizing knowledge and understanding the world, like a mental file folder for everything you know about a "restaurant," "dogs," or even yourself, built from past experiences.

built through experience and can be simple patterns

(example: a child repeatedly filling containers - your ‘car’ schema that knows what a car is and how to use one

how do schemas influence perception?

They help us make quick judgments but can also distort reality.

they influence:

attention

memory

interpretation

behaviour - often without our awareness

Give an example of a schema in action?

1. In a fast food restaurant you automatically know to order at the counter rather than wait at a table

2. Smartphone Schema: Knowing how one smartphone works helps you quickly learn another, as you apply your existing "phone functions" schema to the new device.

3. Dog Schema: A toddler sees a dog, learns "four legs, barks." Sees a tiger, calls it a dog (fits schema). Parents correct, creating a new "tiger" schema, refining the dog one.

What happens when schemas cannot form? (korsakoffs syndrome)

People with Korsakoff’s syndrome cannot form new memories, so every situation feels new; they may “confabulate” to fill gaps

What did the Harold Kelley study show? 1950

A lecture labeled “warm” or “cold” produced completely different student impressions, even though the lecture was identical.
→ Schema expectations shape interpretation of ambiguous behavior.

What is Priming in psychology?

When exposure to one stimulus (a "prime") unconsciously influences your response to a later, related stimulus, making you process it faster or differently, like seeing "bread" makes you recognize "butter" quicker.

example: if u see ‘doctor’ you're primed to think of ‘hospital’ (the brain creates shortcuts)

Higgins, Rholes & Jones (1977) - describe the priming study with Donald

Participants primed with positive words (adventurous) judged Donald positively; those primed with negative words (reckless) judged him negatively.
→ Priming shapes interpretation without awareness.

What is automatic goal pursuit?

When goals get triggered and run to completion without conscious thought or effort - your mind automatically starts working to achieve something

example: helping someone or making money

Seeing someone in need might automatically trigger a “help” goal

When is automatic decision making better?

• Driving a Car: An experienced driver can steer, use the pedals, and shift gears with little conscious thought, allowing them to focus on traffic or conversation. This skill execution is largely unconscious.

What is the Macbeth effect?

The observation that people tend to want to cleanse themselves when they perceive that they have violated their own ethical standards

(we may help in order to get rid of bad feelings)

What is hindsight bias? (after an event)

The tendency to believe, after an event, that we “knew it all along”

This can cause overconfidence and poor decisions

What is the group attribution error/ stereotyping?

Overgeneralising traits of 1 group member and thinking the whole group is the same

What is controlled thinking?

Conscious, intentional , effortful thought used for problem solving and planning.

Q: What is counterfactual thinking?

A: Imagining alternative outcomes ("If only…").
Triggered by negative events or near misses.
Can intensify emotional reactions.

What is social perception?( other people)

The process through which we understand other people by interpreting their behaviour , facial expressions, body language and voice

It's essentially our mental shortcut for making sense of the social world, heavily influenced by our past experiences, biases, and cultural background, often involving nonverbal signals such as facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice. 

What is independent self (western culture)

defined by personal thoughts, feelings , actions (independence and uniqueness valued)

Interdependent self (asian cultures)

Defined by relationships and social roles ( connectedness and obligations valued)

What is introspection? (inwards)

Looking inwards at ur thoughts ,feelings and motives

examples: thinking about your major, wondering why u binge-watched instead of studying

key point: human mind can reflect on itself , but introspection is imperfect

What is Self Perception Theory? (I must like it and im doing it)

It's the idea that, "I must like it because I'm doing it!"—like eating more ice cream meaning you like it more.

When attitudes/feelings are uncertain we infer them by observing our behaviour and its context.

Suggests that people form attitudes by observing their own behavior and the context in which it occurs. This process is similar to how we would infer someone else's attitudes by watching their actions.

intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation

intrinsic motivation: the activity gives you enjoyment/interest (reading for fun)

extrinsic motivation: engaging due to external rewards/pressures (pizza for reading)

What does having a fixed mindset mean?

their abilities are innate and unchangeable so failure= proof of lack of talent= tendency to give up

growth mindset?

abilities can be developed, setbacks= opportunities to improve

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger) (and the 4 types of it)

We define ourselves by comparing to others when no objective standards exist.

Lateral: with similar others → most accurate.

• Upward: with those better than us → inspires but may lower self-esteem.

• Downward: with those worse off → boosts self-esteem.

• Temporal: comparing current self with past self → feeling of growth.

What is social tuning?

Unconsciously adopting others attitudes

stronger when we want to get along with someone

can also reject views of people we dislike

affective forecasting?

Predicting how we will feel in future events

people rely on limited info= often inaccurate

cognitive dissonance?

Psychological discomfort from our beliefs, attitudes or behaviours being inconsistent.

how to reduce cognitive dissonance?

change behaviour to bring it in line with the clashing belief

By justifying the behaviour (example: smoking- “it relaxes me”)

Example:
You think lying is bad, but you lie anyway → you feel uneasy → you try to justify it (“It wasn’t a big lie”) to feel better

What is post decision dissonance ?

Exaggerate positives of chosen option, downplay rejected one, depends on the importance of the decision (stronger when they are important and irreversible)

What is lowballing? ( e.g. in a shop)

a compliance tactic where someone makes an extremely attractive initial offer (like a low price or easy commitment) to get you to agree, then changes the terms to be less favorable (raising the price, adding hidden costs), but you're more likely to accept because you've already committed and want to remain consistent.

Effort justification:

The harder we suffer/work for something, the

more we value it.

The Hypocrisy Paradigm ( being a hypocrite and then changing)

Making people aware of the difference between what they say and what they do to create dissonance-> motivates them to change their behavior.

Example:People publicly advocate a positive behavior (e.g., “We should save water”).

• Then they reflect on times when they didn’t do it.

• The inconsistency → dissonance.

Dehumanizing the Enemy (when people harm others)

When people harm others, they feel cognitive dissonance:

“I’m a good person, but I hurt someone.”

To reduce dissonance, they dehumanize the victim— seeing

them as less human or deserving.

• Result:

→ Less empathy, more aggression, and escalation of conflict.

how to turn dissonance into growth? ( 3 ways)

Admit mistakes early.

→ Avoids the “spiral of self-justification.”

• Be open to disconfirming evidence.

→ Reduces bias and increases learning.

• Replace blame with curiosity.

→ Ask “Why did I act this way?” instead of “Who’s at fault?”

You are a vegetarian, but you end up landing on an island where you can only eat meat. This forces you to contradict your internal consistency and beliefs and pushes you to go against your behavior. Because of this situation, which of the following factor is a psychological stressor?

dissonance

What Are Attitudes?

An attitude is a person’s enduring evaluation of people, objects, and ideas.

They guide how we think, feel, and act toward things in our social world.

What are biases?

an attitude or a mental process that distorts reality or fairness

examples:

Gender bias: assuming men are

more competent than women.

Confirmation bias: seeking only

evidence that supports your beliefs.

how are attitudes formed?

• Personal experience

• Social learning and culture

• Classical or operant conditioning

how are biases formed?

Cognitive heuristics

• Implicit associations

• Cultural stereotypes and social norms

consequences of attitudes

Shapes preferences and behaviors (“I

prefer eco-friendly brands.”)

Can be positive, negative, or neutral

consequences of biases

Leads to unfair judgments or

discrimination (“People who drive

expensive cars must be arrogant.”)

3 components of attitudes

• Cognitive: beliefs and thoughts (e.g., “This car is fuel-efficient.”)

• Affective: emotions and values (e.g., “I love this car’s style.”)

• Behavioral: actions or observable responses (e.g., “I always buy this brand.”)

how do attitudes change? ( 2 major influences)

Internal: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Acting against one’s beliefs (with little external justification) leads to internal attitude change.

External: Persuasive Communication

• Changing attitudes through exposure to arguments or media.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty &

Cacioppo, 1986)

• Two routes to persuasion:

Central route: when people are motivated and able to think →

persuasion via strong arguments. (long term change)

• Peripheral route: when people are distracted or uninvolved →

persuasion via cues (celebrity, length, style).

Q: What is reactance theory? (freedom)

The idea that people experience a motivational reaction when their freedom is threatened.

(“Don’t do this!”) can increase desire to do it.

DISCUSSION QUESTION : Why do you think emotional appeals (like fear or humor) often work better than rational ones?

• They grab attention quickly

• They don’t require much thinking

• They’re more memorable

• They influence feelings directly

• They reduce resistance and motivate action

Q: What is conformity?

A: A change in behavior due to real or imagined influence of others.

Q: What is social influence?

A: The ways people affect others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Q: Is conformity always negative?

A: No. It can promote cooperation, but also lead to harmful or immoral behavior.

Q: How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in conformity?

A: Individualistic cultures value independence; collectivistic cultures value harmony and conformity.

Q: What are the two main reasons people conform?

A:

• Informational social influence (need to be right)

• Normative social influence (need to be accepted)

Q: What is Informational Social Influence?

A: Conforming because we believe others have more accurate information.

Q: When is informational conformity most likely?

A: In ambiguous, crisis situations or when experts are present.

in a classroom

Q: What is normative social influence? (to be the norm)

A: Conforming to be liked or accepted, not because others are right.

Q: What happens in the brain when people conform?

A: Perceptual brain areas change, altering what people actually see.

Q: What happens in the brain when people resist conformity?

A: Activation of areas linked to fear, anxiety, and social pain.

Q: Why is non-conformity emotionally costly?

A: The brain treats it like social rejection or exclusion.

Q: Describe Milgram’s obedience to authority experiment.

Milgram’s experiment (1963–1974) studied obedience to authority. Participants believed they were giving electric shocks to a “learner” for wrong answers in a memory task. The shocks increased gradually from 15 to 450 volts. An authority figure (the experimenter) told them to continue. Although the learner showed distress, 62.5% of participants obeyed and reached the maximum voltage, showing that ordinary people can perform cruel actions when ordered by a legitimate authority.

Q: Why did participants obey in Milgram’s study?

A: pressure, informational influence, gradual steps, and loss of responsibility.

Q: What reduced obedience in Milgram’s variations?

A: Rebel peers and absence of the authority figure.

What is a group?

A group is defined as two or more people who

interact and are interdependent, meaning each person

influences the others.

Why do people join groups? (4 main reasons)

• Need to belong: likely innate; throughout evolution, group living promoted survival through cooperation .

• Source of information: groups help us interpret social situations.

• Social identity: groups contribute to self-concept; rejection is psychologically painful (even lowering perceived room temperature).

• Need for distinctiveness: smaller groups allow both belonging and uniqueness.

Q: What are social norms?

A: Implicit rules that guide acceptable behavior in a group.

Q: What are social roles?

A: Shared expectations about how group members should behave.

Q: What is group cohesiveness?

A: The degree to which members like and are committed to the group.

the "social glue" that binds members to a group, creating unity, attraction, and commitment towards shared goals, marked by mutual respect, belonging, and unified action, leading to better performance

Q: What are the benefits and costs of group diversity?

Group diversity brings benefits like

enhanced creativity, innovation, and better problem-solvingthrough varied perspectives, leading to improved performance and decisions. However, it can also create challenges such as reduced social cohesion, communication issues, and increased conflict, though these can be managed with proper integration, with diverse teams often outperforming homogeneous ones when managed well. 

Q: What is social facilitation? (tasks in groups or alone)

a psychological phenomenon where people perform better on simple, well-learned tasks and worse on complex, new tasks when others are present, compared to when they are alone, due to increased arousal and evaluation concerns from the audience or co-actors

Q: What is social loafing? (like a bread)

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working on a group task than they would if they were working alone

less responsibility

Q: Why does social loafing occur?

people feel less accountable and less responsible when in a group so they reduce their effort - they rely on others

Q: What is process loss?( in a group)

When a group underperforms - producing less or achieving worse results then they would if they did it alone- due to issues like poor communication, coordination breakdowns

What is groupthink? (thinking about harmony)

A decision making failure where group harmony is prioritised so it leads to irrational decision making ( occurs in highly cohesive and isolated groups with a strong leader)

What is group polarisation? (extreme polarisation)

When group discussion leads members to adopt more extreme positions than those they started with

Why does group polarisation happen? (2 reasons)

Persuasive arguments: members hear new arguments

supporting their initial inclination (confirmation bias?).

• Social comparison: members shift toward a slightly more

extreme version of the group’s perceived norm to be liked and

accepted.

Q: What types of leadership exist? (2 types) short and long

A: Transactional - like a credit card its fast (short-term goals) and transformational- transforming you because you change(long-term vision).

Q: What is the Propinquity Effect? (physical proximity)

A: Physical or psychological closeness increases attraction.

Q: What is the Mere Exposure Effect?

A: Repeated exposure increases liking.

Q: Why is similarity important in relationships?

A: It validates beliefs and is crucial for long-term relationships.

Q: What is reciprocal liking?

A: We like people more when we know they like us.

Q: What is the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype?

A: Attractive people are assumed to have positive traits.

Q: How does attractiveness create self-fulfilling prophecies?

A: Attractive people are treated better and respond more positively.

Q: What does evolutionary psychology say about attraction?

A: Preferences evolved to maximize reproductive success (• Features such as facial symmetry are attractive because they

signal “good genes” and health )

2 Types of love

• Companionate love: deep intimacy and affection without intense

physiological arousal.

• Passionate love: intense longing accompanied by physiological arousal. Cultures differ in how they prioritize these forms of love.

What is the Social Exchange Theory? (exchange like in a shop -cost and benefit)

A: Relationships are based on costs, benefits, and alternatives.

It suggests people act like rational economic actors, choosing relationships where benefits outweigh costs, influencing everything from friendships to workplace dynamics. 

What is Equity theory in relationships?

A: Satisfaction is highest when relationships feel fair ; long-term inequity creates distress.

What is Prosocial behaviour? (e.g.feeding cats)

Any act performed with the goal of benefiting ANOTHER PERSON, regardless of the internal motivations

→ The intention is to help, plain and simple.

What is Altruism (al herseyimi)

Helping with no expected reward, even at a cost ( occurs only when the motivation is pure)

What is the Social Exchange Theory in helping others?

People help when rewards

outweigh costs.

• Rewards may include social

approval, reduced guilt, increased

self-esteem.

• Helping is not necessarily rooted in

biology but in rational cost–benefit

analysis.

Social exchange theory example (just read the next slide to understand)

Helping a coworker with a difficult task

• Imagine you see a coworker struggling to finish a report before a deadline.

Possible rewards

• Your coworker may help you in the future (reciprocity).

• You might gain approval from your boss or colleagues.

• Helping could make you feel good about yourself.

• It may improve your relationship with that person.

Possible costs

• Helping might take time away from your own work.

• You may feel stressed by taking on additional tasks.

• There might be no recognition for your help.

Empathy–Altruism Hypothesis (Batson)

•Proposed by C. Daniel Batson.

•When people feel empathy for someone in need, they will help

purely to benefit the other person.

•This help is true altruism:

→ no personal gain,

→ possible personal cost.

What is Empathy in Batsons theory?

•Not just “feeling sorry.”

•A deep emotional response:

→ taking the other person’s perspective,

→ feeling what they feel,

→ understanding their emotional state.

Empathy shifts attention away from the self and toward the

other person’s needs.

When empathy is low, what does it depend on?

Helping depends on cost–benefit evaluation.

•People ask:

•“What do I gain from helping?”

•“What do I avoid by helping?”

•Motivation is egoistic, not altruistic:

•avoid guilt,

•gain approval,

•improve self-image.

What happens when empathy is high and when its low?

When empathy is high → altruism

• Helping is driven by concern for the other person.

• Independent of personal gain.

• Independent of consequences of not helping.

• When empathy is low → egoistic helping

• Helping is guided by self-interest.

• People help only when benefits outweigh costs.

(from the Toi and Batson Experiment)

Real-World Example of Empathy: The Case of Alan Kurdi

(2015)

In 2015, the photo of Alan Kurdi, a three-year-old Syrian boy who drowned while fleeing war, circulated worldwide.

• The image evoked strong, immediate empathy

• People responded with genuinely altruistic actions,

including:

• donating to refugee support organizations,

• volunteering in shelters and rescue missions,

• offering housing to refugee families,

• pressuring governments to open humanitarian corridors.

• These actions were not motivated by personal gain,

visibility, or rewards.

• Motivation came from empathy alone — a direct emotional

response to the suffering of a vulnerable child and his family.

How to increase Altruism?

→ encourage perspective-taking,

→ teach emotional understanding,

→ highlight similarities with those in need.

Empathy–Altruism Hypothesis vs Social

Exchange Theory (how they conflict)

Empathy–Altruism Hypothesis (Batson)

• Helping can be purely altruistic.

• Triggered by empathy.

• Goal: reduce the other person’s distress.

• Helping occurs even if:

• costly,

• unrewarded,

• invisible to others.

Social Exchange Theory

• Helping is never truly altruistic.

• People help when rewards outweigh costs.

• Goal: maximize personal benefits (approval, mood, reputation).

• If costs are high and no benefits are expected → no helping.

The theories conflict: one allows true altruism,

the other does not.

19. How do culture and gender affect helping?

Men show more heroic helping, women more nurturing helping; people help in-group members more.

20. How do mood and environment affect helping?

Mood and Helping

• Good mood → more helping (“feel good, do good”).

• Bad mood → more helping when helping reduces guilt (“feel bad, do good”).

• Situational Factors: Urban vs Rural

• People in cities help less due to the urban overload hypothesis.

• Rural environments favor prosocial behavior.