STUDY GUIDE IB HOTA I—INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS

George Washington

George Washington is a key figure primarily for his roles as the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, president of the Constitutional Convention, and the first U.S. President. His leadership was critical in achieving independence, framing the new government under the Constitution, and establishing key precedents for the presidency, including the two-term tradition and warnings against political factions and foreign alliances in his Farewell Address

Fort Necessity

A small, hastily constructed fort built by George Washington in 1754 that became the site of the first battle of the French and Indian War, leading to Washington's first military defeat

Gen. Braddock

General Edward Braddock is a key figure in the French and Indian War (1754-1763), known for leading a disastrous 1755 campaign to capture Fort Duquesne. This event is historically known as "Braddock's Defeat" and had several consequences: it exposed British military weaknesses, led to heavy British casualties, and significantly impacted colonial-British relations, as demonstrated by the fact that George Washington served on his staff, and the defeat highlighted a need for better coordination between British regulars and colonial militias. 

Articles of Confederation

the first government of the United States, establishing a weak central government with a unicameral legislature, and were in effect from 1781 to 1789

Alexander Hamilton

particularly through his advocacy for a strong federal government and the establishment of a national financial system. His contributions include serving as the first Secretary of the Treasury, authoring The Federalist Papers to support the ratification of the Constitution, and proposing key financial programs like the assumption of state debts and the creation of the first Bank of the United States. He is also known for his vision of a capitalist and manufacturing-based economy, differing from the agrarian views of contemporaries like Thomas Jefferson

Whiskey Rebellion

demonstrating the new federal government's power to enforce its laws against armed resistance. Occurring in 1794, it began as a protest by western Pennsylvania farmers against a federal excise tax on whiskey, but expanded when the rebels attacked tax collectors and government buildings. President George Washington personally led a militia of 13,000 men to suppress the rebellion, which effectively ended it and proved the Constitution was a workable document for maintaining domestic tranquility.

Thomas Jefferson

• Revolution of 1800

• ¨We are all Republicans, we are all federalists¨

• Worked to make federal government small and limited 

• Cut number of federal offices 

• Repealed Alien and seditions 

• Repealed Whiskey excise tax

• Reduced the size of navy
  Louisiana Purchase 

• for $15 million from Napoleon 

• Important for western farmers 

• Secured free and unrestricted navigation of Mississippi River 

Farewell Address

George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) gave the young United States guidance for its future. He warned against political parties, which could divide the nation; regionalism, which could weaken unity; and permanent foreign alliances, which could drag America into unnecessary wars. Washington emphasized that national unity was the foundation of liberty and strength, and that Americans should place country above local or party interests. In foreign policy, he urged the U.S. to stay neutral and independent, avoiding entanglement in European rivalries. Overall, his address was a practical roadmap for protecting the nation’s stability and focusing on its own interests.

Alien and Sedition Acts

The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) were four laws that restricted immigrant rights and limited free speech, mainly to silence critics of the Federalist government. They reflected fear of foreign threats and internal dissent.

Main laws:

• Naturalization Act: Raised the time to become a citizen from 5 to 14 years.

• Alien Act: Allowed the president to deport or imprison non-citizens seen as dangerous.

• Alien Enemies Act: Permitted deportation of citizens from hostile nations during wartime.

• Sedition Act: Made it illegal to speak or publish criticism of the government or president.

Impact:

• Deepened the political divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

• Suppressed dissent by jailing critics like Matthew Lyon.

• Prompted Jefferson and Madison’s Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, asserting states’ rights and challenging the acts’ constitutionality.

• Eventually expired by 1801; Jefferson pardoned those convicted.

Significance:

The acts became a major example of the ongoing U.S. struggle between national security and civil liberties, especially freedom of speech and the press.

John Locke

• Natural Rights: Locke argued that individuals are born with inherent rights to life, liberty, and property.

• Social Contract Theory: He proposed that governments are created by the people to protect these rights through a contract where citizens consent to be governed.

• Right to Revolution: If a government breaks the social contract and becomes tyrannical, the people have the right to overthrow it.

• Consent of the Governed: The legitimacy of a government comes from the consent of the people it rules, not from divine right or heredity.

• Separation of Powers: His ideas supported the division of government power to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful, a principle later incorporated into the U.S. Constitution.

• Religious Toleration: Locke's work on religious toleration also influenced the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. 

Connection to the American Revolution

• American revolutionaries like Thomas Jefferson adapted Locke's ideas, most famously in the Declaration of Independence, which includes the phrase "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness".

• Locke's writings provided an intellectual framework that justified the colonists' rebellion against British rule, arguing it was not treason but a necessary response to a government that had failed to protect their rights. 

Emancipation

The process of freeing enslaved people from bondage.

Yeoman Farmers

A yeoman farmer in American history was a small, independent farmer who owned and worked their own land, typically using family labor to make a living. They are often idealized as the backbone of American democracy and the agrarian ideal, representing a vision of self-sufficiency and civic virtue

VA & KY Resolutions

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798–1799), written secretly by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, were Democratic-Republican responses to the Alien and Sedition Acts. They challenged federal authority and laid the foundation for the long-standing debate over states’ rights vs. federal power.

Key Ideas:

• Compact Theory: The Constitution was an agreement among the states, which only gave limited powers to the federal government.

• States’ Right to Judge: States could decide whether federal laws were constitutional.

• Nullification and Interposition: States could declare federal laws “null and void” or refuse to enforce them if they violated the Constitution.

• Free Speech Defense: The Sedition Act was condemned as a violation of the First Amendment, silencing legitimate criticism of the government.

Significance:

• Helped unite opposition to the Federalist Party and contributed to Jefferson’s election in 1800.

• Introduced ideas that became central to the states’ rights debate, influencing later conflicts such as the Nullification Crisis (1830s).

• Served as an early warning of the tensions that would eventually lead to Southern secession and the Civil War, making them key documents in the IB History of the Americas study of early U.S. political thought.

Lewis & Clark

The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806), commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson after the Louisiana Purchase, is a key topic in the IB History of the Americas as it illustrates early U.S. expansion and policy development.

Key Themes:

• Territorial Expansion & Manifest Destiny: The expedition marked the beginning of America’s westward push, laying the groundwork for the belief in Manifest Destiny—the idea that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America.

• U.S. Claims to the Pacific Northwest: By reaching the Pacific Ocean through the Columbia River, the mission strengthened U.S. territorial claims in the Oregon Country, challenging British and Spanish interests.

• Interaction with Indigenous Peoples: Lewis and Clark’s encounters with nearly 50 Native American tribes, aided crucially by Sacagawea, demonstrate the era’s complex diplomacy and foreshadow the later displacement of Indigenous nations.

• Economic Development & Trade: The explorers sought trade routes and opportunities—especially the Northwest Passage and the fur trade—to expand U.S. economic influence.

• Scientific & Geographic Discovery: The Corps of Discovery mapped vast regions, identified 300+ new species, and greatly advanced America’s understanding of western geography and natural resources.

Overall Significance:

The expedition symbolized the young nation’s ambition, curiosity, and imperial vision, linking Jefferson’s policies, Native relations, and scientific discovery to the broader story of westward expansion and national identity.

LA Purchase

Louisiana Purchase (1803) — Key Concepts (Flashcard Style)

• Westward Expansion & Manifest Destiny: Doubled U.S. size; inspired belief in divine right to expand westward.

• Slavery & Sectional Tensions: Sparked debate over free vs. slave states → led to Missouri Compromise & Civil War tensions.

• Impact on Native Americans: Led to land seizures, broken treaties, and forced removals (e.g., Trail of Tears).

• Constitutional Debate: Jefferson’s purchase lacked clear constitutional authority → expanded presidential power.

• Foreign Policy & Security: Removed France from North America; secured Mississippi River & New Orleans for trade.

• Economic & Geographic Growth: Opened land for farming (cotton), trade, and exploration (Lewis & Clark).

Embargo Act of 1807

Embargo Act of 1807 — IB History of the Americas (Flashcard Summary)

• Purpose: Banned U.S. trade with all foreign nations to avoid involvement in the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and France.

Causes:

• Naval conflicts: Britain and France violated U.S. neutrality.

• Impressment: British seized American sailors (e.g., Chesapeake-Leopard Affair).

• Economic coercion: Jefferson aimed to pressure both powers through trade restrictions.

Key Provisions:

• Halted all U.S. exports and foreign imports.

• Enforced with fines and ship seizures.

Consequences:

• Economic collapse: Exports dropped; merchants and farmers suffered.

• Opposition & smuggling: Especially strong in New England.

• Diplomatic failure: Britain and France were largely unaffected.

Significance:

• Failure of economic coercion: Hurt U.S. more than Europe.

• Prelude to War of 1812: Exposed limits of neutrality and economic diplomacy.

• Replaced by: Non-Intercourse Act (1809), reopening trade except with Britain and France.

Federalists/Democratic-Republicans

Federalists — IB History of the Americas (Flashcard Summary)

Meaning:

• Supporters of the Constitution (1780s): Advocated for ratification and a strong central government; promoted in The Federalist Papers.

• Political Party (1790s): Led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams; believed in national authority, stability, and economic strength.

Federalist Era (1789–1801):

• Period when the Federalist Party dominated U.S. politics.

• Key Developments: Creation of executive departments, Supreme Court, and a strong national economy under Hamilton’s financial plans.

• Beliefs: Strong federal government, loose interpretation of the Constitution, and a commercial economy modeled on Britain.

Decline & Legacy:

• Decline: Lost influence after Jefferson’s election (1801).

• Legacy: Laid foundations of U.S. government structure and federal authority; influence continued through John Marshall’s Supreme Court decisions.

Simon Bolivar

movements against Spanish rule that resulted in the formation of several independent nations in South America. His key contributions include military campaigns that liberated Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, as well as his vision of a unified "Gran Colombia" and a broader, unified Latin America, which continues to influence regional identity today. 

Key contributions and impact

• Military campaigns: Bolívar was a revolutionary general who led a series of military campaigns against the Spanish colonial forces, culminating in the liberation of six countries in South America. He is famous for his daring crossing of the Andes to take the Spanish by surprise.

• Formation of Gran Colombia: After his military victories, he was instrumental in creating the state of Gran Colombia, a union of modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. He served as its first president.

• Pan-American vision: Bolívar had a grand vision of a united Latin America, a dream of hemispheric solidarity that continues to resonate in modern movements for regional cooperation. He believed that a unified continent would be stronger and more secure against external powers.

• Social reforms: His progressive ideas included the freedom of slaves and the distribution of land to indigenous peoples.

• Legacy: Despite the eventual fragmentation of Gran Colombia and the political challenges he faced in his later years, Bolívar is a revered figure throughout Latin America for his role in ending colonialism. The country of Bolivia is named in his honor. 

Challenges and decline

• Political fragmentation: Bolívar's dream of a unified continent ultimately faced challenges, and he died in December 1830 feeling disillusioned by the political fragmentation of the region.

• Struggle for democracy: He recognized that the newly independent nations needed political maturation to achieve true democracy, and his later dictatorial actions were a pragmatic attempt to hold the new states together, despite betraying his own republican ideals

Francisco de Miranda

Francisco de Miranda — IB History of the Americas (Flashcard Summary)

• Role: Venezuelan revolutionary known as the “Precursor of Latin American Independence.”

Key Contributions:

• Early Visionary: One of the first to plan liberation from Spanish rule; drafted constitutions for a free Spanish America.

• Global Revolutionary: Fought in the American Revolution, French Revolution, and Latin American independence wars—a truly international freedom fighter.

• Activism Abroad: Sought British and U.S. support for independence; organized an unsuccessful expedition from New York.

• Mentor to Bolívar: Influenced Simón Bolívar, who built on Miranda’s vision to achieve independence for several South American nations.

Legacy:

• Though his revolts failed and he died in Spanish captivity, Miranda’s ideas and sacrifices inspired future revolutionaries.

• Remembered as the intellectual and ideological forerunner of Latin American independence.

Cartagena Manifesto

Cartagena Manifesto (1812) — IB History of the Americas (Flashcard Summary)

• Author: Simón Bolívar, written in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia) after the fall of the First Republic of Venezuela.

• Purpose: Analyze Venezuela’s failure and rally New Granada to support a new liberation campaign.

Key Themes:

• Analysis of Failure: Identified weak government, poor leadership, and lack of unity as causes of Venezuela’s collapse.

• Critique of Federalism: Argued that a strong central government was essential during wartime, rejecting weak federal systems.

• Need for Strong Military: Called for a professional standing army instead of undisciplined militias.

• Social & Political Issues: Blamed poor administration, Church opposition, and excessive tolerance toward royalists.

• Call to Action: Urged New Granada to unite and act before Spanish power spread further.

Significance:

• First major political work by Bolívar, showcasing his emerging leadership.

• Directly led to the Admirable Campaign (1813) and the creation of the Second Republic of Venezuela.

• Laid the intellectual foundation for Bolívar’s later ideas of centralized authority and continental unity.

The Liberator

Simón Bolívar, "El Libertador" 

• Role: Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a central role in the fight for independence from the Spanish Empire in South America.

• Nickname: He earned the nickname "El Libertador" ("The Liberator") in 1813.

• Impact: Bolívar led armies to liberate several South American territories, including what are now Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia. He is considered a national hero in many of these countries.. 

Bernardo O’Higgins

Bernardo O’Higgins — IB History of the Americas (Flashcard Summary)

• Role: Chilean revolutionary leader; first Supreme Director of Chile (1817–1823); key figure in Latin American independence.

Key Contributions:

• Military Leadership: Commanded Chilean forces with José de San Martín and the Army of the Andes, achieving victory at the Battle of Chacabuco (1817).

• Supreme Director: Led Chile after independence; known as the “Liberator of Chile.”

• Reforms:

  • Abolished black slavery (first leader in the Americas to do so).

  • Advanced education, agriculture, mining, and infrastructure.

  • Promoted national unity, though often through authoritarian rule.

Connections:

• Collaboration with San Martín: Partnered in military campaigns for Chilean and regional liberation.

• Influence of Global Events: Inspired by revolutionary movements and the Napoleonic invasion of Spain.

Challenges & Legacy:

• Authoritarianism: His centralization of power alienated aristocrats and federalists.

• Exile: Forced to resign and live in Peru until his death (1842).

• Enduring Impact: Remembered as a founding father of Chile, whose leadership and reforms shaped the nation’s path toward modernization and independence.

Peninsula Wars

• Location & Context: Fought on the Iberian Peninsula between Napoleonic France and an alliance of Spain, Portugal, and Britain. Though European, it deeply influenced Latin American independence movements.

Key Connections to the Americas:

• Latin American Wars of Independence:

  • The war weakened Spain as Napoleon deposed King Ferdinand VII, creating a power vacuum.

  • Creoles in the Americas began forming local juntas, questioning loyalty to French-controlled Spain and initiating independence movements inspired by Enlightenment ideals.

Creoles vs. Peninsulares:

• Heightened tensions between creoles (American-born elites) and peninsulares (Spain-born officials).

• Creoles sought political and economic power, fueling revolutionary sentiment.

Caudillismo:

• The collapse of Spanish authority led to regional instability.

• Power vacuums gave rise to caudillos—military strongmen who dominated politics in many post-independence Latin American nations.

War of 1812

Key Causes & Events:

• Impressment & Trade: Britain restricted U.S. trade and forced American sailors into its navy.

• American Expansionism: U.S. sought to annex Canada; opposed by British-backed Indigenous tribes.

• Indigenous Resistance: Tecumseh’s Confederacy fought U.S. expansion into the Northwest Territory.

• War Hawks: Young, pro-war congressmen pushed for conflict to defend national honor and gain land.

• “Mr. Madison’s War”: Federalists’ nickname blaming President James Madison for the unpopular war.

Outcomes & Significance:

• National Identity: Strengthened U.S. nationalism and unity.

• “Second War for Independence”: Confirmed American sovereignty and ability to defend itself.

• Treaty of Ghent (1814): Ended the war with no territorial changes (“status quo antebellum”).

• Battle of New Orleans (1815): Major American victory fought after the treaty was signed.

Political & Social Impacts

• Federalist Party collapsed after opposing the war.

• Native resistance weakened, opening the West to U.S. expansion.

• Boosted Canadian nationalism and U.S. foreign policy confidence.

Andrew Jackson 

• Jacksonian Democracy: Expanded suffrage for white males, promoting the “common man” and reshaping American political participation.

• Indian Removal: Enforced the Indian Removal Act (1830), forcing tribes west of the Mississippi—resulting in the Trail of Tears, a humanitarian tragedy.

• Nullification Crisis (1832): Confronted South Carolina’s attempt to nullify federal tariffs; Jackson defended federal authority but exposed deep sectional tensions.

• War on the Bank: Opposed the Second Bank of the U.S., viewing it as elitist and corrupt; his veto and withdrawal of federal funds weakened the national bank, altering U.S. finance.

• Spoils System: Introduced political patronage, rewarding supporters with government jobs—seen as both democratic and corrupt.

Battle of New Orleans

• Final major battle of the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain, sparked by British trade restrictions and impressment of American sailors.

Significance:

• Decisive American Victory: General Andrew Jackson led U.S. forces to a stunning win — over 2,000 British casualties vs. fewer than 100 Americans.

• Nationalism & Identity: The triumph became a symbol of American pride and unity, celebrated as proof of national strength.

• Jackson’s Rise: Elevated Andrew Jackson to national hero status, paving the way for his future presidency.

• Unnecessary but Impactful: Fought after the Treaty of Ghent (Dec. 24, 1814) due to delayed communication; nonetheless, it boosted morale and the perception of victory.

• Diverse Forces: Jackson’s army included regulars, militia, free Black soldiers, Native Americans, and pirates under Jean Lafitte, reflecting a broad coalition.

• Military Tactics: Americans fortified “Line Jackson,” using defensive earthworks that decimated advancing British troops.

Burning of Washington

• Context: The attack was part of the Chesapeake campaign and a direct response to the American destruction of York (modern-day Toronto) the previous year.

• Military action: British forces defeated American troops at the Battle of Bladensburg before marching into Washington, D.C..

• Targets: British soldiers set fire to key public buildings, including the White House, the Capitol, and the Treasury Building.

• Impact: The burning of Washington was the only time a foreign power has captured and occupied the U.S. capital since the American Revolutionary War.

• Aftermath: While it was a devastating blow to the young nation's morale, the event ultimately fostered a stronger sense of American nationalism and unity. A storm that followed the fire also helped extinguish some of the flames. 

James Monroe

• The Monroe Doctrine (1823):

  • What it was: A policy statement that warned European powers not to interfere with or attempt to colonize any new independent nations in the Western Hemisphere.

  • Purpose: To protect the newly independent Latin American republics from European attempts to restore colonial regimes, and to prevent further expansion of European influence in North and South America.

  • Significance: It established the U.S. as the dominant power in the hemisphere and became a central tenet of American foreign policy for many years.

• The "Era of Good Feelings":

  • What it was: A period of relative national unity and political harmony during the early part of Monroe's presidency, following the War of 1812.

  • Context: The Federalist Party was weak, and the Democratic-Republicans held dominance, leading to a sense of nationalism and unity.

  • Limitations: This era was marked by rising sectional tensions, especially over slavery, which would eventually lead to crises like the Missouri Compromise.

• Territorial Acquisition:

  • Florida Purchase: In 1819, the Adams-Onís Treaty was signed with Spain, which secured Florida for the United States and established a firm western boundary for the Louisiana Purchase.

• Sectionalism:

  • Missouri Compromise (1820): A legislative measure that sought to balance the interests of free and slave states. It admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, and established a line at the

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    parallel to determine where slavery would be allowed in future territories.

  • Impact: While it temporarily eased tensions, it highlighted the growing division between the North and South. 

John Quincy Adams

Key aspects of John Quincy Adams' presidential term in IB History

• Election and political context: Adams was elected president in 1824 through a "corrupt bargain" where the House of Representatives chose him over Andrew Jackson, who had won the popular vote. This weak start plagued his presidency and led to a difficult relationship with Congress.

• The American System: Adams was a strong advocate for a national agenda that included federal investment in infrastructure and education to modernize the country. His proposals included building roads, canals, and public schools, which he believed would create a more unified national market and strengthen the country.

• Opposition and limited success: Many of his ambitious plans were rejected by Congress, which was increasingly influenced by states' rights sentiments that opposed a powerful federal government. His term is often seen as frustrating and unsuccessful in terms of achieving his domestic goals.

• Legacy and connections to previous roles: While his presidential term faced challenges, it built upon his earlier work as Secretary of State under James Monroe. His most significant contribution was authoring the Monroe Doctrine, which laid the groundwork for future U.S. foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere.

• Later career: After being defeated by Jackson in 1828, Adams briefly retired but then served multiple terms in the House of Representatives, where he became a prominent opponent of slavery. 

Era of Good Feelings

• Nationalism: Surge of pride after the war; reinforced by Monroe Doctrine (1823) declaring the Americas closed to European colonization.

• Political Dominance: Democratic-Republicans held near-total control; Federalist Party collapsed, leading to brief one-party unity.

• Economic Growth: Rise in manufacturing, trade, and infrastructure; Henry Clay’s American System promoted a national bank, tariffs, and internal improvements.

Underlying Tensions:

• Slavery: The Missouri Compromise (1820) exposed deep sectional divides between North and South.

• Westward Expansion: Led to Native American displacement and growing debates over expansion and governance.

Rush Bagot Treaty

• Agreement:

  • Both the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to limit their naval forces on the Great Lakes.

  • Each side could only keep a few small armed vessels, specifically one 18-pound cannon and 100-ton vessels on Lake Ontario and Lake Champlain.

  • All other armed vessels were to be dismantled.

• Significance:

  • It was one of the first arms control treaties in the world.

  • It established a precedent for peaceful coexistence and cooperation between the two nations, leading to a long period of peace on the border.

  • It contributed to the undefended border that exists between the United States and Canada today. 

Adams-Onis Treaty

Overview:

Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, it was negotiated by John Quincy Adams (U.S.) and Luis de Onís (Spain). It settled long-standing border disputes and resulted in Spain ceding Florida to the United States.

Key Points:

• Territorial Expansion: U.S. acquired Florida and established a defined western boundary—a major step in peaceful territorial growth through diplomacy.

• Manifest Destiny: Set a precedent for westward expansion, showcasing growing U.S. ambition and belief in continental destiny.

• U.S. Assertiveness: Adams skillfully leveraged Andrew Jackson’s invasion of Florida to pressure Spain into conceding favorable terms.

• Border Establishment: Clarified the Louisiana Purchase boundary, drawing a line from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific, settling disputes with Spanish Texas.

Background Factors:

• Louisiana Purchase Friction: Disputes over undefined boundaries since 1803.

• Florida Instability: Spain’s weak control led to Seminole raids and escaped slaves causing U.S. security concerns.

• Spain’s Weakness: Distracted by European wars and Latin American revolutions, Spain sought stability.

Terms & Ratification:

• The U.S. gained Florida; Spain recognized U.S. claims to Oregon Territory.

• U.S. renounced claims to Texas and assumed $5 million in American citizen claims against Spain.

• Signed in 1819, ratified in 1821 by both nations.

Seminoles

• Emerged in the 1700s when Creek migrants from Georgia and Alabama moved into northern Florida to escape colonial conflict (mainly with South Carolina).

• Joined by smaller tribes and escaped slaves, forming a diverse confederation.

Name “Seminole”:

• Derived from Spanish “cimarrón” (wild/runaway) or Creek “simanó-li” (separatist/runaway).

• Europeans began using the name in the 1770s for these independent groups; later adopted by English speakers.

Seminole Wars:

• The U.S. fought three wars with the Seminoles in Florida (1817–1858).

• Driven by American expansion and attempts to remove the Seminoles from their lands.

• Resulted in heavy casualties and forced relocation to present-day Oklahoma—part of the Trail of Tears.

Black Seminoles:

• Escaped slaves allied with and lived among the Seminoles, forming mixed communities.

• Became known as Black Seminoles; many were relocated with the Seminoles to Indian Territory.

• Faced re-enslavement and discrimination, especially from some Creek groups.

Monroe Doctrine

Background:

• Announced by President James Monroe and primarily written by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.

• Issued in response to Spanish and Russian ambitions in the Americas and to protect newly independent Latin American republics from European interference.

Core Principles:

• Non-Colonization: The Americas were closed to future European colonization.

• Non-Interference: The U.S. would not interfere in existing European colonies or internal European affairs.

• Warning Against Intervention: Any European attempt to impose its political system in the Western Hemisphere would be seen as a threat to U.S. security.

Significance (IB Context):

• U.S. Sphere of Influence: Defined the Western Hemisphere as under U.S. protection, signaling a shift toward assertive foreign policy.

• Precedent for Intervention: Later used to justify U.S. involvement in Latin America (e.g., Roosevelt Corollary, early 20th century).

• Economic Interests: Aimed to preserve U.S. trade relationships and prevent European powers from reclaiming markets in Latin America.

Cuba

the Spanish-American War (1898), which resulted in U.S. intervention and control

Panama Conference 1826

Overview:

Also called the Amphictyonic Congress, it was convened by Simón Bolívar to unite the new Latin American republics against potential European intervention and to promote hemispheric solidarity.

Key Aspects:

• Purpose: Form a mutual defense alliance and coordinate policy among the independent American nations to resist Spain and deter European colonial ambitions.

• Key Figures: Organized by Simón Bolívar; the United States was invited but delayed participation due to domestic political divisions over slavery and policy toward Latin America.

• Participants: Attended by Gran Colombia, Mexico, and the Federal Republic of Central America; Great Britain and the Netherlands sent observers.

• Outcome: Produced the Treaty of Perpetual Union, League, and Confederation, but it was ratified only by Gran Colombia, limiting its effectiveness.

Significance:

• Though a short-term failure, the Congress of Panama marked the first attempt at inter-American cooperation.

• Served as a precursor to the Pan-American movement and later regional organizations.

• Reflected Bolívar’s vision of hemispheric unity, anti-imperialism, and cooperation on issues such as abolishing slavery and the slave trade.

Protective Tariff

Overview:

The American Revolution (1775–1783) reshaped U.S. society by expanding political participation, challenging traditional hierarchies, and spreading ideals of liberty and equality — though these ideals were applied unevenly across social groups.

Impact on Different Groups:

• Common Citizens: Greater political participation; more men gained voting rights and involvement in local governance.

• Women: Rise of “Republican Motherhood” — women encouraged to become educated to raise moral, civic-minded citizens for the new republic.

• Enslaved & Free African Americans: Revolutionary ideals inspired demands for freedom and equality; some gained freedom through service or escape, but slavery persisted, and racial divisions deepened.

• Native Americans: The war was devastating—tribes like the Iroquois Confederacy split in allegiance, leading to internal conflict, loss of land, and destruction.

• White Americans: The Revolution reinforced a racial hierarchy, linking whiteness with freedom and blackness with servitude.

Broader Social & Ideological Changes:

• Paradox of Liberty: Fought for liberty but maintained slavery — a lasting contradiction in U.S. ideals.

• National Identity: Fostered a shared sense of American identity, blending unity with regional diversity.

• Challenge to Hierarchy: Undermined aristocratic privilege and promoted egalitarian ideals within states.

• Global Influence: The Revolution’s rhetoric of liberty, equality, and self-rule fueled movements in Europe, Latin America, and beyond during the “Age of Revolution.”

Political Impact

Formation of Political Parties:

• Originated from debates over the Constitution (1787) and the balance of federal vs. state power.

• Split between Federalists (strong central government) and Democratic-Republicans (state sovereignty).

Manifest Destiny:

• Ideology that the U.S. was destined to expand westward across North America.

• Justified territorial expansion, Native displacement, and conflicts like the Mexican-American War.

Slavery & Sectionalism:

• Expansion fueled disputes over free vs. slave states.

• Sectional tensions between North and South escalated into the Civil War (1861–1865).

Late 19th to Early 20th Century:

Industrialization & Progressivism:

• Rapid industrial growth, urbanization, and immigration transformed society.

• The Progressive Era (1890s–1920s) sought reforms—labor rights, women’s suffrage, anti-trust laws, and political accountability.

U.S. Imperialism:

• Post–Spanish-American War (1898), the U.S. acquired overseas territories (e.g., Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico).

• Sparked debates between imperialists (expansion for power and trade) and anti-imperialists (defense of self-determination).

Overarching Themes:

• Federal Power: Ongoing tension between national authority and states’ rights.

• Modernization & Industrialization: Drove both economic growth and social inequality.

• Democracy & Reform: Persistent struggle to expand democratic participation and civil rights.

• Foreign Policy Evolution: From the Monroe Doctrine (1823) asserting hemispheric independence to the Good Neighbor Policy (1930s) promoting cooperation with Latin America.

Significance:

These developments illustrate the dynamic evolution of U.S. democracy, balancing ideals of liberty and equality with economic power, reform movements, and the nation’s expanding global influence.

Economic Impact

Immediate Negative Impacts:

• Inflation & Financial Instability: Excessive printing of paper money by the Continental Congress caused hyperinflation and economic chaos.

• Trade Disruption: Separation from Britain ended established trade networks, disrupted credit markets, and made foreign trade risky.

• Economic Destruction: War damaged southern plantations and coastal cities, while inflation and weak finances crippled recovery.

• Workforce Drain: Military service pulled laborers from farms and workshops, reducing production and productivity.

Long-Term Positive Impacts:

• End of Mercantilism: Independence ended restrictive British trade laws, allowing economic freedom and expansion.

• New Trade Opportunities: The U.S. began direct trade with nations like France, the Netherlands, and China, diversifying markets.

• Stimulated Domestic Industry: Without British imports, American manufacturing grew, especially textiles and shipbuilding.

• National Economic Policy:

  • The Constitution (1787) empowered the federal government to tax, regulate trade, and create a stable currency.

  • Led to the creation of the First Bank of the United States and a unified national market.

• Expansion & Resources: Post-war access to western lands encouraged settlement, agriculture, and new domestic market