Studied by 63 people
★ = Confirmed essay question NOTE: Not every essay question posed has to be answered on the test !! There will be options <3
NOTE: This is a question of personal opinion, but I added it to make sure everything we need to know for the test can be found in one place !!
★ Explain in detail what you believe is the most important thing that you learned about Canadian history this semester. Why is this important?
One example: Racist and exclusionary immigration policies → the refugee crisis as a response to WWII
NOTE: I only provided one example because I didn’t want to risk plagiarism. Glancing over the notes will provide more clarity and answers !!
★ During the period of 1880-1945, racial inequalities within Canadian society were made more apparent. Give an example of two of these inequalities and the events that occurred that made them known to the public.
Middle Power: a state that holds a position below a superpower, but holds ability to shape international events (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
NOTE: I provided the definition, but not a definitive answer because I didn’t want to risk plagiarism. I have some resources to look at if you need further information to help formulate an answer !!
★ Post World War II, Canada was seeking status as a Middle Power. What did this mean for the country?
Diversified post-WWII
★ Beginning in 1947, how did Canadian immigration change? Why was this important?
Welfare state: The welfare state in Canada is a multi-billion dollar system of government programs that transfer money and services to Canadians to deal with an array of societal needs. (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
NOTE: I provided the definition, but not a definitive answer because I didn’t want to risk plagiarism. I have some resources to look at if you need further information to help formulate an answer !!
★ How did the expansion of the Social Welfare programs impact Canada? What changes occurred?
Canada was split between those who desired to stay apart of a unified nation vs those who wanted independence.
★ Both the Meech Lake Agreement and the Charlottetown Accord were rejected. What does this tell us about Canadian identity and the Quebecois Movement?
Enshrined rights for minority groups in the constitution.
★ What effect did the Charter of Rights and Freedoms have on Canada? Why was it important?
By the mid-1880s, a two-party system (Conservative & Liberal) had evolved at the federal and provincial levels, in many aspects known as the “Golden Age” of Canadian party politics. At this time, party affiliation were serious matter; towns were divided and had parallel Liberal and Conservative businesses. Each parties developed consensual systems capable of holding different ideologies and interests
How did politics in Canada evolve in the 1880’s?
Sir John A. Macdonald dies in 1891
Power Vacuum; Conservatives can't recover
Wilfrid Laurier (Liberal Party) rises to power as Prime Minister
1896-1911
Famous for compromise
How did power shift in Canada after 1891?
Railroads are still king
Railways were both a means of development and investment in the 1850s
Subsidized ventures
Railway construction involved public subsidies: Often in the form of land grants along the right of way
Example: Canadian Pacific Rail Company (CPR)
The CPR received the completed line from Fort William, Ontario, to Selkirk, Manitoba, moreover, they received a payment of $25million + plus 25 million acres .
• Development of Hydroelectric power
abundant water power provided potential energy, Technology toward the 19th century allowed natural water falls to be harnessed. Quebec had the greatest hydroelectricity potential, and the process of exploiting electricity for both light and power was one of the great technological developments of the 20th century
Rapid industrialization but unequal
Industrial growth was well above the national average in Ontario, at the national average in Quebec and well below the national average in the Maritimes and western provinces, Large urban cities like Toronto expanded significantly, while smaller communities fell behind :(
What did the Canadian economy look like from 1880s-1910s?
Federation of Provinces
Provinces push for more power
Wished to control territorial development
British Privy Council votes in favor of Provincial Rights
What did it look like as provinces gained power?
Population Change
•1881: population 4,325,000
o3,349,000 live in rural settings
•1921: population 8,788,000
o1,659,000 lived in urban areas
•Drastic increase in urban populations
•Regional differences
Urban growth was uneven across regions, Maritimes grew fairly sluggishly. None could establish regional dominance. Halifax lost ground as central Canada siphoned off its financial institutions, The most spectacular growths was in the west which spawned two major cities, Winnipeg and Vancouver
• exposed social issues
greatest problem was poverty Existing evidence suggest that half of the Canadian urban working class lived below or well at the poverty line
malnutrition and deplorable housing conditions combined to produce high death rates and infant mortality rates
What was the ‘urban boom’ in Canada?
Business and professional class seeking to escape noise and odor of the city
Industrial suburbs based on cheaper land and lower taxes
Workers moved to industrial suburbs; often into inadequate housing
What were 3 motives for suburb expansion?
•Eastern Canada and the Prairies increase in farming
•Mass exodus of the rural communities happening during this period.
•Lack of opportunities
Unmodernized farms could not continue to support families by 1911, this caused urban migration or farmers and farm women to move intio the traditional resource industries, Males fished or cut lumber, while women worked seasonally in factories
•Isolation existed in these communities
•Exploitation of the labor market, the system was particularly hard on women, who usually didn’t share in ownership of the farm,
What did rural communities look like in Canada?
The period of 1880 to 1914 saw this resurgence, The French, Germans, and even American took upon what Kipling called “The White Man’s Burden”
Describe the resurgence of imperialism.
A poem that presents the conquering of non-white races as white people's selfless moral duty.
What was Rudyard Kipling’s "The White Man's Burden"?
This often appeared to be a debate between those who sought to keep Canada within the British Empire and those who wanted to assume full sovereignty. this question usually brought up “the race and reform” question aswell
What was the "Canada Question"?
Imperial thinking and racism became even more bigoted in this period, Racialist thinking was at a height during this period, part of the “race question” was not about race at all but about conflict between French and English
Describe what imperial thinking and racism was like in Canada.
Inheritance was the key to evolution, races were formed by “natural selection,
What is ‘eugenics ideology’?
newcomers who would or could not assimilate into society were believed to lower the “standard of civilization.”
Describe assimilation to Canadian, or the "standard of civilization".
4.5 million immigrants to Canada
What was immigration like from 1880-1920?
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 was the first piece of Canadian legislation to exclude immigrants on the basis of their ethnic origin. It imposed a duty of $50 on every Chinese person seeking entry into Canada. (Google)
Describe the 1885 Royal Commission on Chinese immigration exclusion.
Gave cabinet the power to regulate immigration according to race and to keep out “prohibited and undersireable classes”
What did the Immigration Act of 1910 do?
A Japanese vessel harboring 376 passengers, 340 of these passengers were Sikh and had been arriving to British Columbia for decades, The passengers were blocked by the government, refusing to allow them on land, The vessel was stormed by immigration authorities and they were forced to head back to India.
What was ‘Komagata Maru (1914)’?
On 1 July 1923, Canada prohibited Chinese immigration. The Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 (Chinese Exclusion Act) was the culmination of anti-Chinese racism and policies, including the head taxes which it replaced. (also google)
What was the ‘Chinese Immigration Act (1923)’?
Led by middle class women known as Protestants, they were nurturers of society and became leaders.
Who were Reform Movements led by?
Emphasized gender questions and addressed women’s political powerlessness by attempting to win for them the right to vote. these women were almost exclusively Canadian or British born and belong to the mainline protestant churches.
What was ‘women's suffrage’?
A major current in the social hygiene movement was the concept of eugenic feminism, which asserted that women were the bearers of the next generation of the “race” and therefore had the legal right to vote and politically advocate for interests concerning them, their children, and the “race” as a whole. (Google, Perchance)
What was the correlation between women's suffrage and eugenics?
Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, and British Columbia follow soon after in 1916
Ontario 1917
In 1918 the federal government enfranchised women to vote in federal elections. This does not include provincial elections, Nova Scotia 1918
New Brunswick, Yukon Territory 1919
Prince Edward Island 1922
Newfoundland and Labrador 1925
1929 The Imperial Privy Council ruled that women were legally "persons" and therefore could hold seats in the Canadian Senate.
Quebec 1940
Describe the timeline of women's enfranchisement.
1914-1918
Tangle of treaties and alliances in Europe
Assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Everyone declares war on everyone
But Germany is found to blame
Once Britain declares war in 1914, Canada automatically declared war as a colony of the empire.
What was ‘The Great War (WWI)’?
Trench warfare
Constant artillery shelling
Flooded trenches and mud caused health hazards
Sleep deprivation
“Shell Shock"
60,661 killed in action
172,000 wounded
3,000 indigenous enlist
No. 2 Construction Battalion; All Black regiment
1st half of the war= romanticized; patriotic duty
2nd half of war= apathy; low enlistment; conscription
Describe the conditions of the War (WWI).
Nov. 11th, 1918
The armistice was signed between the Axis and Allies ending the First World War. The armistice was the culmination of a coordinated Allied offensive extending across the western front, a distance of more than 400 miles.(Google)
What is ‘Armistice Day’?
January 1919
Canada’s participation was less concerned with the disposition of European and international problems than its own status in dealing with that disposition this led to Canada being treated as an independent nation.
They gained elevated statuses and set a precedent for Canada to be able to make its own international policy decisions
What were the ‘Paris Peace Conferences’?
It was signed on June 28, 1919, the treaty gave some German territories to neighbouring countries and placed other German territories under international supervision.
What was the ‘Treaty of Versailles (1919)’?
Financial reparations, disarm, lost territory (their territory was divided up amongst the allied nations), and give up all of its overseas colonies
What were the German reparations as established by the Treaty of Versailles?
50,00 deaths in Canada
Although not the country of origin, Spain was hit hard by the Flu and were the first to report an extensive report on the virus.
What was the ‘Spanish Flu (1918-1919)’?
Another form of infectious epidemic made its appearance in 1919.
During the Red Scare of 1919-1920, many in the United States feared recent immigrants and dissidents, particularly those who embraced communist, socialist, or anarchist ideology. (mass.gov)
What was the ‘Red Scare’ in Canada?
Caused by the economic depression from 1920–1930 which was the cumulative result of the worldwide fall in prices, which had never readjusted from the inflation of war time and the deflation from post war period. Which lead to the stock market crash of 1929.
What is the ‘Great Depression (1929-1939)’?
Socialism
Unemployment, major work
the great depression saw the admission of more then 1,700,000 newcomers
1,166,000 people between 1921 and 1931
140,000 people between 1931 and 1941
50,000 people between 1942 and 1945
What were the social effects of the Depression?
The Canadian government implemented exclusionary immigration policies, applying severe restrictions to entry and drastically increasing deportation.
What was the ‘immigration crackdown’?
The economy finally began to recover
September 1939 Adolf Hitler invades Poland
France and Britain declare war
Canada waits a week to declare showing off "independent status."
Canadian troops concentrated in European and North Atlantic theatres
Describe World War II (1939-1945).
Japanese internment camps
Black participation; with resistance, black men and women could serve in world war II, they had to push for desegregated units
Red tape receiving veterans benefits once home
Indigenous participation
Treatment reflected belief of superiority over indigenous population
Part of the draft even though they werent recognized as Canadian citizens
Excluded from the Department of Veterans Affairs
Federal government gave away indigenous reserve lands to white veterans
Describe what racism and conflict looked like around World War II.
WWII changed how ethnic communities viewed Canadian Society
Black and indigenous soldiers went overseas to fight for freedom and they don't have it at home.
What were the repercussions of WWII?
1945-1960 is known as a prosperous period in Canadian history
Period known for:
Labor activism and strikes
Growing social protections
Economic stability & Prosperity
However, also known for:
Cold War
Constitutional Issues
What was Canada like from 1945-1960?
1945-1960 per capita income nearly doubled
Economic theory = Keynesian economics
General Idea: Healthy economies spend more than they save to spur economy.
Economic shifts:
Agricultural decline
Increase "white collar" work
Ontario manufacturing gains
Oil
Women join the workforce
Pay is 2/3 of men
What was the economy like from the 1940s-1960s?
Canada not yet a "welfare state"
1948 funded hospital research
1957 Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act
1951 Old Age Security Act
Beginning steps towards Canadian socialism
What were ‘social welfare programs’ like in Canada in 1945?
As the economy ramped up, so did organized labor movements.
Labor union fights began WWI-WWII
Wished for COLLECTIVE BARGAINING
Following WWII, Provincial and Federal governments made concessions
What was the ‘Labour Movement’?
1947-1991
Post-WWII, USA and Russia global superpowers
Created "spheres of influence"; Democracy vs. Communism
Germany divided by allied powers 1947; Berlin Wall
Arms race: a competition between nations for superiority in the development and accumulation of weapons, especially between the US and the former Soviet Union during the Cold War. (Oxford Languages)
NUCLEAR WEAPONS THE GREATEST THREAT
Espionage = spy work
1945 Igor Gouzenko incident
Igor Gouzenko was a Soviet cipher clerk stationed at the Soviet Union’s Ottawa embassy during the Second World War. Just weeks after the end of the war, Gouzenko defected to the Canadian government with proof that his country had been spying on its wartime allies: Canada, Britain and the United States. This prompted what is known as the Gouzenko Affair. Gouzenko sought asylum for himself and his family in Canada. His defection caused a potentially dangerous international crisis. Many historians consider it the beginning of the Cold War. (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
Cold War stuck between isolated communication between governments, increased military weapons, and spies.
Canada more aligned with US than Britain.
What was ‘The Cold War’?
Canada left out of WWII treaty negotiations
Found place as a MIDDLE POWER:
A state that holds a position below a superpower, but holds ability to shape international events
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1949
Canada a founding member
Korean War (1950)
Canada has no standing army
Increased defense budget 10-fold= $2 billion by 1953
Peacekeeping operations
What were Canadian international relations like during the Cold War?
Federal, provincial, and municipal governments grew rapidly
1945 6 Dominion–Provincial Conference on Reconstruction
Constitutional conflict due to division of powers in British North America Act of 1867
Tax rental scheme; Ontario and Quebec refused
Biggest issue during this period was the unclear constitution
What were domestic politics like in Canada from 1945-1960?
First Past the Post System = the electoral system used in Canada
Liberals and Conservates = dominate powers in federal government
CCF (Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) and Social Credit Party held a few seats in parliament.
REPRESENTATION IN GOVERNMENT UNDERMINED BY FPTP
The Liberals in power never won more than 50 per cent of the popular vote in any election in the period 1945–60
“Today, Canada is divided into 338 different electoral ridings, and each electoral riding has a ‘seat’ in Parliament. The Member of Parliament elected to each seat in Parliament is meant to represent that electoral riding’s interests. During election time 338 elections are held simultaneously, and each eligible voter in their electoral riding can vote for their MP. The winning candidate only needs to receive the most votes out of any of the candidates on the ballot. This is known as a simple majority. The MP does not need to receive more than half of the votes, which is known as an absolute majority. The winner in that election will become the MP for that electoral riding, which is commonly referred to as assuming a ‘seat’ in Parliament. The party in Parliament who has the most MP seats is the party that forms a government.”
What is ‘The First Past the Post System (FPTP)’?
Liberal party stronghold in Quebec
Alternated between Anglo and Franco leaders
New Francophone nationalism emerged
Previously, Quebec seen as "backward"
Power of Catholic Church
Agrarian peasantry
Maurice Duplessis Union Nationale
Secular nationalism
Modernization and industrialization
Modeled off Marxist (communist) theory
What were some issues arising in French Canada from 1945-1960?
Still exclusionist and racist during this period
World faced refugee crisis from WWII
German refugee camps
Canada did not want to accept them
May 1946, investigation into immigration policy
Cabinet amended immigration policy, allow refugees with close relatives
May 1st, 1947 Prime Minister Mackenzie King address
"Absorptive capacity"
1949 sponsorship program = highly-trained immigrants
June 1950, by Order-in-Council pc 2856
What was immigration like from 1945-1957?
1958-1970: Era of radical change
1960s counterculture spread because of modern T.V. and media
Baby boomers as hippies
Youthful rebellion had 2 wings:
Politicized movement of rebellion
Self-reformation and self-realization
What was ‘The Counter-Revolution (1960-1972)’?
The 1960s to mid-1970s counterculture generation was an era of change in identity, family unit, sexuality, dress, and the arts. It was a time when youth rejected social norms opposed by their past generation.
Describe 1960’s counterculture.
English Canada (Anglophone):
United States was the spiritual home of the sixities counterculture that arose in English Culture, Americans went further in universalizing education and suburbanizing their culture.
Political movement spurred by Vietnam War, this was the perfect symbol for their generation of everything wrong with mainstream American society
Centered around universities", American war resisters took refuge in communities of university students. and they establish many national organizations through universities, like the union for peace (1965)
Reform movements = eccentric socialism, this was democratically oriented, and idealistically verging on romanticism . the movement was better at explaining what’s wrong with the system then proposing solutions.
French Canada (Francophone):
Opposition to Canadian federalism’s colonial oppression of Quebec
Involved young people of university age, but did not center around universities
They had cooperation between new generation and older generations, they weren’t cut off from other generations like English Canada
Front de libération du Québec (flq), group formed by young people.
Describe the difference in1960s Counterculture; Anglophone vs Francophone.
This was Canada's first federal law to protect human rights
It was enacted under Prime Minister John Diefenbaker
Attempt to amend the constitutional issues of the earlier decades
Flawed, but a good first step.
What was ‘The Bill of Rights (1960)’?
1961: The National Indian Council founded
1968: Dissolution of National Indian Council
Formation of Canadian Metis Society and National Indian Brotherhood
1969: Department of Indian Affairs published the White Papers on indigenous policy
3 Recommendations:
Abolition of the Indian Act
Transfer of Crown Land Reserves into the authority of indigenous nations
Slowly ending government responsibility for "status Indians"
Indigenous nations in Canada pushed back against the White Paper recommendations
Still assimilationist
Undermined indigenous sovereignty
Describe what Indigenous activism was like in the 1960s.
Spawned from the American Black Civil Rights Movement
Center of Canadian Black movement was Montreal
1969 Sir George William's Affair, Montreal, Quebec
Black Power/Civil Rights movement still severely understudied within Canadian history.
Describe the Black Power Movements in Canada.
1966: Committee for the Equality of women
1967: Royal Commission on the Status of Women
Fought for women’s liberation
4 assumptions:
Right to work
Childcare
Maternity leave and rights
Positive action to overcome prejudice
Describe the Women’s Movement in Canada.
1960s Quiet Revolution
Quebec’s transformation into a secularized, urbanized, and industrialized region
Separatist movement with the FLQ
Founded 1963, began terrorist campaign
1967 René Lévesque left Quebec Liberal Party and founded the Bloc Quebecois
1970: almost all of Quebec wanted separate provincial autonomy
Lead to the October Crisis
Describe the Quebecois Movement in Canada.
Cooperative federalism
Symbols of sovereignty
Cultural dualism
What were Pearson’s 3 strategies in the aftermath of the October Crisis?
1960s: Welfare programs concentrated on eliminating poverty.
1971: New unemployment insurance plan extended
Focus on education; Secondary education
Still a provincial responsibility, but with some federal funding
Teacher qualifications put in place
Equal access to education initiatives began
Describe what expansion into a welfare state looked like in the 1960s.
1946-1972: 3.5 million immigrants entered Canada
1970s new tolerance for racial and cultural diversity due to:
After effects WWII
Increased diversity within cities
1962 Ellen Fairclough, minister of immigration, introduced reforms that removed racial discrimination to immigration policy.
What is the ‘immigration reform (1960-1972)’?
The national question (in French: la question nationale) is an expression referring to the discussion about the future status of Quebec within Canada, taking into consideration issues of autonomy, sovereignty, and independence. (Wikipedia)
NOTE: Nothing specifically pertaining to the concept of a “Quebec Question” came up online, however, I believe that title was more generally referring to the climate of Quebec at the time as they expanded and developed
What was ‘The Quebec Question’?
The crisis was the culmination of a long series of terrorist attacks perpetrated by the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), a militant Quebec independence movement. Felquistes were responsible for more than 200 bombings and dozens of robberies between 1963 and 1970 that left six people dead. (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
Sparked The October Crisis (Martial Law)
Martial Law: Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties may be suspended for as long as martial law continues. (Wikipedia)
The October Crisis happened in the fall of 1970. It was sparked by the Front de liberation du Québec (FLQ). The FLQ used terrorist tactics to try and make Quebec independent from Canada. (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
1973: Parti Quebecois (PQ), Growing Separatism
PQ wins majority in 1976
Task Force of National Unity 1978
Support for change, concessions to Quebec, and increased provincial powers
Describe FLQ Terrorism from 1963-1970.
In 1982, Canada “patriated” its Constitution. It transferred the country’s highest law, the British North America Act (which was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867), from the authority of the British Parliament to Canada’s federal and provincial legislatures. The Constitution was also updated with a new amending formula and a Charter of Rights and Freedoms. These changes occurred after a fierce, 18-month political and legal struggle that dominated headlines and the agendas of every government in the country. (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
Federal Government Actions towards Constitutional Revision:
Repatriation
Charter of Rights
Method of amendment: national referendum
April 17th, 1982, Queen Elizabeth II signed the Canada Act.
There was pushback to the federal patriation process
Went to Supreme Court 7-2 vote
The Process of partition was fully actualized with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982.
Describe the constitutional revisions at the time.
The Charter includes 34 clauses
Significant clauses:
Fundamental Freedoms:
Freedom of Conscience and religion
Freedom of thought, belief, opinion, and expression; including freedom of the press and other media of communication
Freedom of peaceful assembly
Freedom of association
Democratic Rights of Citizens
Life, Liberty, and Security of Person
Equality Before and Under Law and Equal Protection and Benefit of Law/Affirmative Action Programs
Official Languages of Canada/official languages of New Brunswick Advancement of Status and Use
What were some key points of The Charter of Rights and Freedoms?
1987, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney began the Meech-Lake Conference
Elijah Harper, NDP Cree Leader in Manitoba Legislature
Delayed the debate; killed the Agreement
The Accord was never put into effect
Growing Quebec separatist sentiment
In 1987, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to win Quebec’s consent to the revised Canadian Constitution. The result was the Meech Lake Accord. It was an agreement between the federal and provincial governments to amend (change) the Constitution. The Accord proposed strengthening provincial powers and declaring Quebec a “distinct society.” The Accord was never put into effect. Political support for it unravelled in 1990. Many Québécois saw the Accord’s failure in English Canada as a rejection of Quebec. Support for separatism soared in Quebec and led to the 1995 Quebec Referendum. (The Canadian Encyclopedia)
What is the ‘Meech-Lake Accord’?
1992, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney tries again.
Put to a national referendum
Voter turn-out 82%
Number of votes for the Yes option: 1,709,075
Number of votes for the No option: 2,236,114
The Charlottetown Accord of 1992 was a failed attempt by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and all 10 provincial premiers to amend the Canadian Constitution. The goal was to obtain Quebec’s consent to the Constitution Act, 1982. The Accord would have recognized Quebec as a distinct society; decentralized many federal powers to the provinces; addressed the issue of Indigenous self-government; and reformed the Senate and the House of Commons. The Accord had the approval of the federal government and all 10 provincial governments. But it was rejected by Canadian voters in a referendum on 26 October 1992.
(The Canadian Encyclopedia)
What is the ‘Charlottetown Accord’?
Referendum: a general vote by the electorate on a single political question that has been referred to them for a direct decision. (Oxford Languages)
Held October 30th, 1995
1995, PQ back in power, Premier Jacques Parizeau promised a referendum
Wording for the referendum:
“Do you agree that Québec should become sovereign, after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership, within the scope of the Bill respecting the future of Québec and of the agreement signed on 12 June 1995?"
Defeated by a NARROW majority of 50.58% "No" vote
The 1995 Quebec referendum was the second referendum to ask voters in the predominantly French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec whether Quebec should proclaim sovereignty and become an independent country, with the condition precedent of offering a political and economic agreement to Canada. (Wikipedia)
What is the ‘The Quebec Referendum (1995)’?
Special cabinet commission created for new constitutional proposal:
Quebec a distinct society within Canada
Granted a veto to the Western region, the Atlantic region, Ontario and Québec over all future constitutional changes to national institutions.
The federal government gave up any role it plays in labor/market training, apprenticeship programs, co-operative education programs and workplace-based training.
Signed September 14th, 1997, by all Canadian Premiers in Calgary
What is the ‘Calgary Declaration (1997)’?
1951, Indian Act amended
Most racist practices taken out
The Indian Act is the principal law through which the federal government administers Indian status, local First Nations governments and the management of reserve land and communal monies. The Indian Act does not include Métis or Inuit peoples. The Act came into power on 12 April 1876.
(The Canadian Encyclopedia)
The Indian Act is a part of a long history of assimilation policies that intended to terminate the cultural, social, economic, and political distinctiveness of Aboriginal peoples by absorbing them into mainstream Canadian life and values.
(Indigenous Foundations)
1970s, Indigenous women advocate against extreme gender discrimination left in the Act
1980, United Nation Rules Indian Act a Human Rights violation because of gender discrimination.
1985, Bill C-31 introduced
2009, BC Supreme Court finds Bill C-31 unconstitutional
Today, the federal government is still actively amending the Indian Act.
What has the process of fighting for of Indigenous rights and activism looked like from 1985 to now?
"Yet despite controversy, the Indian Act is historically and legally significant for Aboriginal peoples. It acknowledges and affirms the unique historical and constitutional relationship Aboriginal peoples have with Canada. For this reason, despite its problematic nature, efforts to outright abolish the Indian Act have been met with widespread resistance."
Why don’t we just abolish the Indian Act?
African Canadians won political gains from 1980 to the present
These gains point to the "racism on the ground" discussed in this course.
In 2020, Annamie Paul was elected head of the Green Party
First Black Canadian woman to be elected leader of a federal political party
Late 1990s-early 2000s "Street Checks" enter public discussion
Black Lives Matter Movement Canada, 2017
What are some historical moments and developments for black Canadians?
Note 
Flashcard (57)