Introduction and Biology

Most common NHP species used in research?

Among the Old World primates, rhesus

monkeys (Macaca mulatta), cynomolgus monkeys

(M. fascicularis), baboons (Papio spp.), and African green monkeys (Chlorocebus spp.); among the New World primates, squirrel monkeys (Saimiri spp.), owl monkeys

(Aotus spp.), marmosets (Callithrix spp.), and tamarins

(Saguinus spp.) are discussed in detail. One great ape, the

common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes).

What organization signed a treaty in 1979 to prevent further procurement of chimpanzees for use in research?

Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species in Wild Faun and Flora

Which organization in 1995 made a moratorium preventing breeding of chimps for research?

NIH

Which breed of NHP is the most commonly used in research?

SPF rhesus monkeys have become the preferred model for most studies that require this species

What diagnostic technique is used to identify interspecies within the various NHP spp, such as the Chinese Rhesus vs. the Indian Rhesus?

The identification of

intraspecies specific single-nucleotide polymorphisms

(SNPs) has been shown to be a useful tool in differentiating

between macaques of Chinese versus Indian origin

or confirming geographic origin in medical records of

rhesus monkeys with uncertain origin

What are neotropical NHPs?

The term neotropical primate is considered to

be interchangeable with New World monkey to

describe primates indigenous to the Americas.

What are Old World vs. New World primate?

Old World monkey and New World monkey

are used to identify genera found in Africa and

Asia or South and Central America, respectively

What are prosimians?

Prosimian is used to describe all taxa within the

suborders Strepsirrhini and Haplorrhini, which

include lemurs and tarsiers. The word prosimian,

from the Latin root word meaning ‘before monkeys,’

refers to their phylogenetic position with respect

to simian primates. Prosimian primates are not

considered to be ‘monkeys.’

What is simian?

Simian is used as an adjective or noun to describe

monkeys and apes.

What are tarsiers?

Tarsier is used to describe primates of the genus

Tarsius that share characteristics of prosimians and

simians. Like prosimians, tarsiers are nocturnal,

have large eyes and mobile ears, have ‘toilet claws’

on the foot, and have a two-part mandible. Unlike

prosimians, tarsiers lack a naked rhinarium and

dental comb. Like anthropoids (simians), tarsiers

have upright lower incisors and a dry, furry nose.

What are monkeys?

Monkey is the common name that describes all

species of nonhuman primates except prosimians

and apes. Monkeys are distinguished from apes by

the presence of an external tail.

What are macaques?

Macaque is the common name for primates

belonging to the genus Macaca. This genus includes

rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) and cynomolgus

monkeys (M. fascicularis), two of the most

commonly used species in biomedical research.

What is a baboon?

refers to primates belonging to the genus

Papio.

What are great apes?

Great ape is a term used to identify the apes within

the family Hominidae. The great apes include

chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans.

They are distinguished from monkeys by a number

of anatomic features, including lack of tail. They

are capable of bipedalism, although quadrupedal

locomotion is common.

What are lesser apes?

Lesser ape is a term used to identify members of

the family Hylobatidae. Lesser apes include those

species referred to as gibbons and siamangs. They

are smaller than great apes and are almost entirely

arboreal, whereas great apes such as chimpanzees

and gorillas spend a large part of their time on the

ground. They are true brachiators, using their arms

to swing from branch to branch as their primary

means of locomotion. They also lack an external tail.

What are callitrichids?

Callitrichid is used as an adjective or noun to

describe species in the subfamily Callitrichinae,

which includes marmosets and tamarins.

true brachiators - GO SSouthWWest?

Gibbon, Orangutang, Spider monkey, Siamangs, Whooly Monkey, Whooley Spider monkey

What are marmosets?

New World primates belonging to the genera

Callithrix and Callimico within the subfamily

Callitrichinae

What are tamarins?

The common name used to identify New

World primates belonging to the genera Saguinus

and Leontopithecus within the family Callitrichida

What are prehensile tails, which taxa of NHPs (Old or New) do not typically have them?

Prehensile tail is found in some genera of new

world monkeys. It has a tactile pad (dermatoglyph) similar to that

found on the tactile surface of fingers and palms

of hands; it is used as an additional appendage

for clinging and hanging from tree limbs. The

primate can wrap and constrict its tail in a

manner resembling that of an elephant’s trunk.

Prehensile tails are not found in any Old World

monkey taxa.

How does pseudoprehensile tail differ from prehensile tail?

found in some genera of

new world monkeys. The term pseudoprehensile tail

refers to the ability of the animal to grasp and cling

with the tail; however, the tail does not possess a

tactile pad.

Examples of circopithidae?

Which family of animals have cheek pouches and what are their functions?

Cheek pouches are specialized pouches found in

genera within the family Cercopithecidae. These

specialized structures are extensions of the cheeks

that extend below each ramus of the mandible.

Cheek pouches allow the animal to quickly store

food for eating at a later time

What NHPs (Old vs. new) are Ischial callosities found?

Ischial callosities are specialized pads that cover

the skin surface of the ischium and facilitate sitting.

They are found in Old World monkeys and lesser

apes. These structures are not found in New World

monkeys.

What is sex skin and what NHPs (old vs. new) have it?

Sex Skin is a term used to describe thickening

and reddening of the skin in some species of Old

World monkeys and apes. Areas affected most often

are the perineal region and the upper legs, but it

can be observed with almost any skin surface. Sex

skin varies due to seasonality and cyclic hormonal

fluctuations.

What is perineal tumescence and what NHPs (Old vs. New) have it?

Perineal tumescence is a large cyclic swelling that

occurs in some species of Old World monkeys and

apes. It is most pronounced during the periovulatory

phase of the menstrual cycle. This swelling can

be confused with a pathologic process by those

unfamiliar with this natural reproductive process.

Which NHPs Old vs. New are given the term Catarrhine vs. Platyrrhine? What do these terms mean?

The term catarrhine, meaning ‘narrow, turned-down

nose,’ has been used extensively in the literature to

describe Old World monkeys and apes. The term platyrrhine,

meaning ‘flat nose,’ refers to the flattened muzzle

with broadly spaced, laterally flared nares found in New

World monkeys.

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) have Possess a naked, moist snout called a rhinarium with a fissured, fixed upper lip resembling the rhinarium of dogs and cat?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) All are nocturnal except the genera Lemur, Varecia, Hapalemur, Indri, and Propithecus.?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Possess a ‘toilet claw’ on the second digit of the foot for grooming.?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Possess a tooth comb?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) possess a sublingual structure for cleaning the toothcomb?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) possess a mandible that is in two parts joined at the midline by cartilage?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Dental formula: 4 incisors + 2 canines + 6 premolars + 6 molars × 2 = 36 (except Indridae with 30)?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) All have epitheliochorial placentas except Tarsiidae, which has hemochorial?

prosimian

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Indigenous to tropical South and Central America.

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Muzzle is flattened with broadly spaced, laterally flared nares?

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Some species possess prehensile or pseudoprehensile tails?

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Do not possess cheek pouches or ischial callosities.

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Require vitamin D3 in their diet; ingested vitamin D2 is not bioavailable.

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) All have estrous cycles, except Cebus spp., which menstruate.

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) All are arboreal?

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) All are diurnal except Aotus spp. (the only nocturnal simian primate)?

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) Dental formulas: Cebinae: 4 incisors + 2

canines + 6 premolars + 6 molars × 2 = 36

Callitrichinae: 4 incisors + 2 canines + 6

emolars + 4 molars × 2 = 32 (except genus

Callicebus with 36 as in Cebinae)?

Platyrhine

Which NHPs (prosimian vs. Catarrhine vs. Platyrhine) All have hemochorial placentas?

Platyrhine

Which subfamily of NHP have little to no sexual dimorphism; and a high frequency of twinning?

Callitrichinae: Marmosets and Tamarins

What are the common glands and specialized anatomical digit on the feet unique to Callitrichinae: Marmosets and Tamarins?

They have a specialized nail on the first digit of each

foot, the hallux, which is opposable, whereas the thumb

is not. Callitrichids have two distinct scent-marking glands. Circumgenital glands are well-developed sebaceous

glands overlying enlarged apocrine glands that

cover the labia majora and pudendum in the female and

the scrotum in the male. Sternal glands are predominantly

apocrine glands located on the anterior chest and

may be focal or diffuse in structure.

Species?

Callithrix jacchus, the common marmoset,

Species?

Saguinus oedipus, adult cotton-top tamarin,

What are dental differences and size differences between tamarins and marmosets?

In general, marmosets are smaller than tamarins.

Marmosets have procumbent incisor teeth that are the

same length as the canine teeth. This dental arrangement

enables them to gnaw holes in trees and eat gums

and exudates, a staple of their diet. Tamarins have longer

canine teeth, which can assist in differentiating the

genera

Where are marmosets endemic to?

Marmosets are found throughout most of Brazil,

Where are tamarins endemic to?

Tamarins of the genus Saguinus are found throughout much of the

lowland neotropical rain forest from Panama to Bolivia

What is the typical sex / breeding composition of marmosets, particularly the common marmoset?

C. jacchus, group composition may be multimale–multifemale,

one male–multifemale, or one female–multimale. Usually, common marmoset groups contain only one breeding pair, composed of the highest-ranking male and female within the group. Although only

the dominant male and female reproduce, all group

members generally contribute to infant rearing.

Are marmosets diurnal or nocturnal?

diurnal

Do marmosets require a nest box?

Yes in nature they live in tree holes

Diets of tamarins and marmosets? How does dentition anatomy affect their ability to gain access to sap in trees? Does it differ between tamarins and marmosets?

Marmosets and tamarins are omnivorous, feeding on

insects, fruits, nectars, buds and flowers, tree exudates

(gum and sap), and whatever small animals they can capture.

Many marmoset species spend considerable time

consuming tree exudates and gums either by gnawing the

bark or by consuming exudates released by other trauma to

the tree. Tamarins eat more fruits but also consume tree exudates

released by penetration of the bark. They lack

the dentition to gnaw on trees to release sap, but use the

sap exudate flows created by other animals

How does breeding behaviour work in callitrichid groups? Dominant females, what about estrus in the other females?

nonbreeding females in the genuses

Callithrix and Saguinus do not ovulate in the presence

of the dominant female. This suppression

of cyclicity is thought to be caused by scent marking of

the dominant female.

The increase in which hormone is indicative of ovulation for callitrichids?

A marked rise in plasma progesterone within 1 day postovulation is a useful indicator of ovulation.

Does the common marmoset have go into lactational anestrus? Are tamarins different?

No, estrus will commence as early as 3 days post-partum. Tamarins do not have a postpartum estrus, in contrast

to marmosets

Callitrichids tend to have chimeric twins, what does this mean and how does this happen in utero?

Female callitrichids are polyovulatory and dizygotic

twinning is the rule, but singleton births, triplets, and

even quadruplets occur (Tardif et al., 2003, 2012). Blood

chimerism occurs in callitrichids due to placental vascular

anastomoses (Haig, 1999). Female callitrichid species

avoid becoming freemartins in utero as often occurs with

twinning in cattle via an effective aromatizing enzyme

system, which converts androgens to estrone (Ryan et al.,

1961). Since many singletons are the result of a twin being

resorbed, they are commonly chimeric; however, nonchimeric

singletons can occur.

In captivity is there seasonality to breeding and birth for tamarins and marmosets?

No there is no seasonality however there is in the wild for some species.

Is the reproductive capacity of females within the callitrichid family high or low (meaning do females have a lot of babies during their reproductive life time)?

High, up to 20 babies in their reproductive lifetime is common.

Common marmoset gestation and estrus length?

Gestation 148 days, 28.6 for estrus

Sanguineus oepidus gestation and estrus length?

Gestation 168 days, 22.7 days for estrus

Callitrichids are prone to what disease after cold stress?

Cold stress associated with low ambient temperatures in

captive environments has been proposed as a possible

stressor leading to the development of chronic colitis in

this species

What ambient temperature do callitrichids prefer?

Above 32 C, 89 F

Do callitrichids prefer high vertical space or wide lateral space?

high vertical because they spend most of life in trees

What flat surface is essential in a callitrichid cage?

Callitrichids require a flat surface for sleeping and a nest box.

Where the animal can assume a curled posture to conserve

body heat

What frequency should you sanitize the cage and nest box? Should they be at the same time? Where should feeding areas be located for Callitrichids?

Nest boxes should be sanitized every other week, preferably

on an alternate schedule from sanitization of the

cages to allow for retention of social odor or scent marks

(ILAR, 1998). If the item for scent marking is to

be sanitized, it should be on an alternate schedule from

regular cage sanitation to allow some marked surfaces

to remain within the living area at all times

Feeding areas or stations should be above

the floor and multiple stations provided if more than one

animal is in the cage.

How do callitrichids mark their enclosures? What materials should you have in the cage to retain marking?

Both sexes mark by rubbing the genitalia, pubis, or chest on the object being marked. Both sexes also mark with urine. Therefore, it is important to have materials within the cage, preferably wood or fiber, for scent marking.

Due to territoriality of callitrichids what is a way to decrease aggression within the group?

Incorporating visual barriers may decrease this aggressive behaviour in group housed callitrichids

Metabolism of Callitrichids? High or low? What about Gi transit time? fast or slow?

Marmosets and tamarins have a high metabolic rate,

shorter gastrointestinal transit times, and faster growth

rates than other nonhuman primates.

What vitamins are required in the callitrichids diet?

require a dietary source for vitamin D3 and ascorbic acid.

What does iron supplementation in traditional New World NHP diets do to marmosets?

Dietary iron levels found in standard New World primate diets have

traditionally been associated with the development of

hepatic hemosiderosis in marmosets

What is a risk of feeding neonatal mice to callitrichids?

feeding of neonatal

mice was used as a protein source, but this is no longer

in common use. This source of protein supplementation

should be discouraged as it could be a potential source

of pathogen transmission

What is marmoset wasting disease?

Callithrix jacchus are affected by a chronic inflammatory

bowel disease (IBD) which affects primarily the small

intestine resulting in villous atrophy and a maldigestion

malabsorption syndrome. While often referred to as ‘marmoset wasting disease’, this term should be avoided as

it has been linked to several distinct etiologies including

protein deficiency (Brack and Rothe, 1981), food allergens

(Gore et al., 2001) and chronic parasitism (Beglinger et al.,

1988). This form of IBD is widespread throughout captive

marmoset colonies and is characterized by weight

loss, muscular atrophy, anemia, and hypoalbuminemia

(Ludlage and Mansfield, 2003). Thus far, no effective

treatment exists and prognosis is poor.

Do tamarins get wasting disease? How does it differ from marmosets? What is wasting disease in tamarins a model for?

Saguinus oedipus may also develop a

form of IBD, but in this species lesions are present in the

large intestine and characterized by chronic active inflammation

with crypt abcessesation. Tamarin colitis has been

used as a model of ulcerative colitis of man and may be

modified by dietary, environmental, and genetic factors.

How do internal temperatures vary from night and day for calltrichids?

Normal daytime rectal temperature for callitrichids

varies between 39.1°C and 40.6°C (Cilia et al., 1998;

Rensing and Oerke, 2005). The wide range may reflect the

excitability of the species, rigors involved in catching, and

nocturnal torpor. Callitrichids develop a distinct torpor

with hypothermia (34.0°C) during sleep.

Can marmosets and tamarins get herpes B?

No

What species are common models of Parkinson’s disease, aging and age-related diseases, and models of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, which mimics several facets of multiple sclerosis in humans, models for idiopathic hemochromatosis?

The common marmoset

What is the common marmoset a model for?

Models of Parkinson’s disease, aging and age-related diseases, and models of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, which mimics several facets of multiple sclerosis in humans, they are also models for idiopathic hemochromatosis.

Which common Tamarin species in research is also a CITES I?

cotton-top tamarin (S. oedipus), a critically endangered species (CITES Appendix I)

What species is commonly a model of chronic colitis and colon cancer?

cotton-top tamarin (S. oedipus)

What is the Sanguinus oedipus a model for?

chronic colitis and colon cancer

What are Saguinus labiatus and S. mystax models for?

Saguinus labiatus, the red-bellied tamarin, and S. mystax, the mustached tamarin, are used in viral hepatitis studies.

Which tamarin species is a good model for cardiomyopathy?

S. mystax has shown promise as a model for cardiomyopathy

Which simian species is the only nocturnal one?

Owl monkey is the only nocturnal simian primate genus

Which nocturnal species is arboreal and monogamous?

Owl monkeys are an arboreal, monogamous

genus living as pairs or in small family groups

What species?

Aotus spp?

What anatomical feature in the eye do aotus monkeys have that make them unique compared to other nocturnal species as well as a good model for the eye?

Unlike other nocturnal mammals, Aotus spp. lack a tapetum lucidum. Unique characteristics of the owl monkey

eye have made it a valuable animal in vision research

For it’s size, how does the basal metabolic rate compare for aotus spp?

They have a low metabolic rate for their size

What is unique about Aotus spp chromosome number compared to other spp?

Owl monkeys belong to a single genus, yet they have

a wide variation in diploid chromosome number, from 46

to 56.

Where are the gray vs. red necked Aotus spp endemic to?

the gray-necked group occurs north of the Amazon River and the red necked group is found to the south

Are aotus sexually dimorphic? Is there familial rearing of young?

Not sexually dimorphic, and family members do help in rearing young

How do Aotus spp communicate in the forest?

Owl monkeys utilize both urine and glandular secretions

for scent marking and much of their communication

is through olfactory cues. Will urine mark their family as well.

Where are the scent marking glands of aotus spp?

Owl monkeys posess apocrine glands on their face and

brow region, sternal region, and most distinctly the

subcaudal gland in the perianal region

What anatomical and cytology changes are there for assessing estrus stage for Aotus spp?

owl monkey exhibits no change in external genitalia

or predictable changes in vaginal cornification during

the 15- 18-day estrous cycle

Do Aotus spp menstruate? When are female Aotus spp. receptive to males?

Menstruation does not occur.

Unlike the squirrel monkey in which copulations

are limited to the day of ovulation when females are maximally receptive to males, female owl monkeys remain sexually receptive to males throughout the ovarian cycle.

How is testosterone levels affected in Aotus spp with circadian rhythm?

Levels of plasma testosterone in adult

male owl monkeys have a circadian rhythm with peak

levels occurring in the light of day (resting period), and

lowest levels during the dark (active period).

Gestation period of aotus spp?

Gestation period was 133 days