ap psych units 0-5 vocab

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Peer Reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiability

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. Also known as operationalization.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Case Study

A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

Survey

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Social Desirability Bias

Bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Self-Report Bias

Bias when people report their behavior innacurately

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance at inclusion

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to 1.00)

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back towards the average

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment - that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Single Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant about whether they have received the treatment or placebo

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Confounding Variable

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that influences a study's results

Experimenter Bias

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

Quantitative Research

A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

Qualitative Research

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe the characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

A compared measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two or more variables. The larger it is, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

Cultural Norms

Behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Institutional Review

Process of examining studies for ethical concerns by a committee of peers

Informed Assent

Participant's agreement to participate in the absence of full understanding

Commonly applies to individuals who are under age or otherwise incapable of consent.

Confidentiality

The act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

Deception

An act that misleads participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Research Confidentiality

The requirement for participants data to be secured/coded for anonymity

Variation

A change or slight difference in condition, amount, or level

Skewness

A measure of the degree to which a distribution is asymmetrical

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. Typically used in representations of correlation.

Bimodal Distribution

A frequency distribution that features two different values that are heavily populated with cases

Heredity/Nature

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Environment/Nurture

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a Darwinian context of adaptation to physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges

Eugenics

a philosophy that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. They play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

Reflex Arc

the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action - at its simplest, a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between

Sensory Neurons

Also known as afferent neurons. Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Also known as efferent neurons. Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons witin the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

All-or-Nothing Principle

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

Depolarization

a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface

Refractory Period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Multiple Sclerosis

a chronic, progressive disease involving damage to the sheaths of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. Symptoms may include numbness, impairment of speech and of muscular coordination, blurred vision, and severe fatigue.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Myasthenia Gravis

an autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, causing faulty transmission of nerve impulses at neuromuscular junctions

neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released, they bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

excitatory neurotransmitter

Chemicals that depolarize postsynaptic neurons, resulting in a greater likelihood of an action potential

inhibitory neurotransmitter

chemicals that hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neurons, resulting in a lessened likelihood of an action potential

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that has an important role in motor behavior and is implicated in numerous mental conditions and emotional states, as well as within the brain's reward center. Abnormalities regarding this neurotransmitter are associated with Parkinson's Disease, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.

Serotonin

A common neurotransmitter with roles in emotional processing, mood, appetite, and sleep. It is implicated in many psychological conditions, including depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, sleep disorders, aggression, and psychosis.

Norepinephrine

A chemical classified as both a hormone and neurotransmitter that assists in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions

Glutamate

The predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions.

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system

Endorphin

Neurotransmitters produced in the brain that block the perception of pain and increase feelings of wellbeing

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain

Acetylcholine

a major neurotransmitter that plays an important role in memory formation and learning. Is implicated in both Alzheimer's disease and myasthenia gravis.

Hormone

A chemical messenger that is manufactured by endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues