Topic 2

Organic molecule

A carbon-based molecule

Inorganic molecule

A molecule lacking carbon with the exceptions of CO₂ and CO

Carbon

An element that is unique to living systems. It shares electrons but never gains or loses them and forms 4 covalent bonds with other elements

Polymers

Chains of smaller similar units called monomers

Monomers

A molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks down organic compounds. Add H₂O into the reaction and it breaks the O bond. An H goes to the monomer still bonded to the O and the OH goes to the monomer without the O

Dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction that bonds organic compounds. Take an OH from one monomer and an H from the other monomer. The monomers are bonded with an O and the HOH form water.

Saccharide

Carbon or sugar bases

Carbohydrates

Simple sugars containing 3-7 carbon atoms. Its general formula is (CH₂O)_n

Monosaccharides

Monomers of carbohydrates its polymer is polysaccharides

Glucose

A pentose sugar form DNA & RNA backbones. It is written as C₆H₁₂O₆

Ribose

A pentose sugar form DNA & RNA backbones. It is written as C₅H₁₀O₅

Disaccharides

A compound formed by the dehydration synthesis of two monosaccharides. They must be broken down into monomers to be absorbed into the blood. Examples include Lactose (glucose + galactose), Sucrose(glucose + fructose), and Maltose(glucose + glucose).

Polysaccharides

Polymers of monosaccharides formed by the dehydration synthesis of many monomers

Hexose sugars

Sugars such as glucose, fructose & galactose. They are important in metabolism

Lipids/fats

Contains c, h, o, and sometimes p. They are Insoluble in water

Glycogen

A polysaccharide stored in the skeletal muscles and the liver in the form of carbs.

Triglycerides or neutral fats

A fat composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule via dehydration synthesis. They function as energy storage and are called fats when solid and oils when liquid. EX; butter

Adipose

A triglyceride that insulates the body, protects the body and retains heat

Saturated fatty acids

Carbons linked via single covalent bonds (no double bonds), resulting in the maximum number of hydrogen atoms. They are packed closely in straight chains and solid at room temperature

Unsaturated fatty acids

One or more carbons linked via double bonds resulting in reduced hydrogen atoms. Due to cyst double bonds, they form bends because they’re not packed as tightly. They are liquid at room temperature

Monounsaturated fats

An unsaturated fatty acid with one double bond

Polyunsaturated fats

An unsaturated fatty acid with multiple double bonds

Trans fats

Unsaturated but it carbons are in straight chains however, it acts more like a saturated fat due to it having double bonds.

Omega-3 fatty acids

The most heart health fat, it is unsaturated & anti-inflammatory

Phospholipids

A modified triglyceride made up of glycerol and two fatty acids plus a phosphorus-containing head group. The head is the polar region and is attracted to water (hydrophilic) Tails are nonpolar and are repelled by water (hydrophobic)

Hydrophilic

Attracted to water

Hydrophobic

Repelled by water

Steroids

Consists of 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings. EX Cholesterol, vitamin D, & bile salts with cholesterol being the most important

Cholesterol

A steroid that is building block for vitamin D, steroid synthesis, and bile salt synthesis. It is also important to the cell plasma membrane

Proteins

Contains c, h, o, n, and in some cases s & p. They function as Chemicals (enzymes) , Contraction (muscles), Communication, Structural, Transport, Defence  and are made up of amino acids.

3C STD

Protein functions

• Chemicals (enzymes)

• Contraction (muscles)

• Communication

• Structural

• Transport

• Defence 

Amino acids

The monomer of proteins is an acid formed by peptide bonds. It contains an amine group and an acid group. It can act as an acid or base and is formed from proteins through dehydration synthesis. It differs by which of 20 different “R groups” is present. Its polymer is polypeptide or porteins.

Pentose sugars

Made up of ribose & deoxyribose sugars. They form DNA & RNA backbones

Protein structure

The four levels of protein structure that determine shape and function

Primary structural level

The order/linear sequence of amino acids

Secondary level

How primary amino acids interact with each other

• Alpha (α) helix coils resemble a spring

• Beta (ꞵ) pleated sheets resemble accordion ribbons

Tertiary level

How secondary structures interact; 3d model

Quaternary level

How two or more different polypeptides interact with each other

Denaturing

Proteins unfold and lose their functional 3d shape, it causes active sites to become deactivated and a loss of biological function. Denaturing can be caused by increased acidity or increased temperature and are usually reversible if normal conditions are restored

Enzymes

Proteins that act as biological catalysts; they lower the activation energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction

Catalyst

Regulate and increase the speed of chemical reactions without getting used up in the process

Lipoproteins

Protein-lipid complexes that allow hydrophobic substances to travel throughout the body such as cholesterol & triglycerides. They include VLDL, LDL, & HDL

Mechanism of enzyme action

1) Substrate binds to enzyme active site temporarily forming  enzyme-substrate complex

2) Complex undergoes rearrangements of substrate resulting in final product

3) Product is released from enzyme

VLDL

Very low-density lipoproteins

LDL

Known as low-density lipoproteins, they transport cholesterol into peripheral cells for use & storage, are cholesterol-rich, unhealthy, & increased by trans fats

HDL

Known as high-density lipoproteins, they transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver to be broken down and secreted into bile, provide cholesterol to steroid-producing organs, and protect against heart disease. They decrease in the presence of trans fats and increase in the presence of unsaturated fats.

Nucleic acids

Made up of monomers called nucleotides, they are composed of C, H, O, N, and P, are the largest molecules in the body and can be divided into two classes; deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) & ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Shaped in a double helix, it holds the generic blueprint for the synthesis of all proteins and contains nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base and follows complementary base pairing

Complementary base pairing (DNA)

• A always pairs with T (2 hydrogen bonds) 

• G always pairs with C (3 hydrogen bonds)

Complementary base pairing (RNA)

• A always pairs with U (2 hydrogen bonds) 

• G always pairs with C (3 hydrogen bonds)

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Slightly different from DNA, it is a single-stranded linear molecule that is active mostly outside the nucleus, links DNA to protein synthesis, and contains a ribose sugar

Nucleotides

Monomers of nucleic acid, its polymers are DNA and RNA

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

A form of Cellular Energy that contains Adenine (nitrogenous base), ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. It directly powers chemical reactions in cells