Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology: Directional Terms, Body Fluids, Tissue Healing, and Bone Structure

What is the normal pH of blood?

7.4

What are the two types of body fluids?

Intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid.

What is intracellular fluid?

Fluid found inside cells.

What is extracellular fluid?

Fluid found outside cells.

What is intravascular fluid?

Extracellular fluid found in lymphatic and blood vessels.

What is interstitial fluid?

Extracellular fluid found outside vessels and surrounding cells.

What is a solute?

A substance being dissolved, such as salt or sugar.

What is a solvent?

The substance doing the dissolving, primarily water in biology.

What is a solution?

A mixture formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.

What does isotonic mean?

Having an osmolality comparable to that of normal blood.

What does hypertonic mean?

Having an osmolality greater than that of blood.

What does hypotonic mean?

Having an osmolality less than that of blood.

What happens to red blood cells in hypotonic solutions?

They swell and can burst due to water influx.

What happens to red blood cells in isotonic solutions?

They maintain the same size and internal pressure.

What happens to red blood cells in hypertonic solutions?

They lose fluid and deflate as water moves out.

What causes osmotic pressure in a hypotonic solution?

Water moves into the cell, increasing pressure.

What happens to celery in a hypertonic solution?

It becomes limp as water leaves the cells.

What happens to a saltwater protozoan in freshwater?

It swells due to water influx and may burst.

What is the effect of a hypotonic solution on animal cells?

They swell and may burst due to increased osmotic pressure.

What is the effect of a hypertonic solution on plant cells?

They lose water, reducing turgor pressure and causing wilting.

What is the definition of medial?

Toward the median plane.

What is the definition of lateral?

Away from the median plane.

What is the definition of cranial?

Toward the head end of the body.

What is the definition of caudal?

Toward the tail end of the body.

What is the definition of dorsal?

Toward the back.

What is the definition of ventral?

Toward the belly.

What is the definition of proximal?

Toward the body (extremity).

What is the definition of distal?

Away from the body (extremity).

What is the definition of superficial?

Toward the surface (whole body or part).

What is the definition of deep?

Toward the center (whole body or part).

What is the term for the 'back' of the forelimb from carpus distally?

Palmar.

What is the term for the 'back' of the hindlimb from tarsus distally?

Plantar.

What is the term for the 'front' of forelimb and hindlimb from carpus and tarsus distally?

Distal.

Why is the level of side B rising?

Side B is rising because water moves from the hypotonic side (side A) to the hypertonic side (side B) through the membrane, as side B has more solute (10% starch).

Which side is hypertonic compared to the other?

Side B is hypertonic compared to side A.

What is pure water compared to any cell?

Pure water is always hypotonic compared to any cell.

Why is pure water hypotonic?

There is no solute in water.

What indicates no clinical signs of dehydration in a dog?

Mentation is normal, mucous membranes are wet or moist, capillary refill time <2 s, skin turgor has a strong snap with <1-s return, indicating <5% dehydration.

What are the signs of 5%-7% dehydration in a dog?

Patient may be quiet, mucous membranes are tacky, capillary refill time is 2.5-3 s, skin turgor has a delayed return of 1-2 s.

What are the signs of 8%-9% dehydration in a dog?

Patient is subdued, likely sitting or recumbent, mucous membranes are dry, tongue is tacky, capillary refill time is 3-4 s, skin turgor has a delayed return of 3-4 s.

What are the signs of 10%-12% dehydration in a dog?

Patient is depressed and recumbent but conscious, with rapid, weak pulses, slightly shrunken eyes, dry mucous membranes, dry tongue, capillary refill time is 4-5 s, skin turgor is severely delayed (5-8 s).

What are the signs of 12%-15% dehydration in a dog?

Animal is recumbent, unconscious, in cardiovascular shock with very rapid, thready pulses, severely shrunken eyes, very dry and contracted mucous membranes, dry tongue, capillary refill time is 5-8 s, skin remains tented with no skin turgor.

Why do hyaline cartilage and ligaments/tendons heal slowly?

They are avascular, meaning they have no blood supply, so nutrients and oxygen reach cells very slowly by diffusion.

What is hyaline cartilage composed of?

Hyaline cartilage is composed of chondrocytes living in lacunae and a firm gel-like matrix made of glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronic acid, and collagen fibers.

How does hyaline cartilage receive nutrients?

Hyaline cartilage receives nutrients by diffusion from a surrounding membrane called perichondrium.

Why might surgery be needed for damaged cartilage?

When cartilage is torn or damaged, the body cannot deliver enough nutrients or repair cells to the area, leading to incomplete healing.

What are ligaments and tendons made of?

Ligaments and tendons are types of dense connective tissue containing densely packed collagen fibers that run parallel.

Why do ligaments and tendons have slow healing?

They have very little blood supply, making it difficult to receive oxygen, nutrients, and repair cells.

What happens when a ligament or tendon is torn?

The body cannot deliver enough blood, nutrients, and fibroblasts to repair the tissue quickly, leading to potential months of healing or improper healing.

What is the liquid component of blood called?

The liquid component of blood is called plasma.

What are the main components of blood?

Blood contains erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets).

What is the function of blood?

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to tissues and transports waste products and gases for disposal.

What is the body's initial response to injury?

The initial response is inflammation, which limits further damage and eliminates harmful agents.

What are the steps in the inflammatory response?

1. Initial vascular response, 2. Fluid and immune protein leakage, 3. Clot formation, 4. Arrival of immune cells, 5. Resolution phase.

What occurs during the initial vascular response to injury?

There is a brief vasoconstriction followed by vasodilation, increasing blood flow and making capillaries more permeable.

What causes swelling during inflammation?

Plasma containing enzymes, antibodies, and proteins leaks into tissues, causing edema.

What is the role of neutrophils in inflammation?

Neutrophils remove debris and microbes by squeezing through capillary walls.

What happens during the resolution phase of inflammation?

Histamine and heparin disperse, blood flow normalizes, and swelling, heat, and redness decrease.

What begins the process of wound repair?

Wound repair begins with the removal of dead cells and debris by neutrophils and macrophages.

What cells remove dead cells and debris during wound healing?

Neutrophils and macrophages.

What is granulation tissue?

A new, bright pink tissue formed under the scab, containing new collagen fibers and small capillaries.

What is proud flesh?

Granulation tissue that grows too thick, rising above the skin surface.

What occurs during epithelialization?

Epithelial cells divide and migrate across granulation tissue to form a new epithelial layer.

What is fibrosis in wound healing?

The process where fibroblasts produce more collagen and ground substance, leading to scar formation.

What are the characteristics of scar tissue?

Strong but less flexible, unable to perform specialized functions of original tissue.

What are adhesions?

Scar-like connections between organs or between organs and body walls that can restrict movement and cause pain.

What is first-intention healing?

Healing that occurs in clean wounds with edges that can be brought together, resulting in minimal granulation tissue and small scarring.

What is second-intention healing?

Healing that occurs when wound edges are far apart or heavily damaged, resulting in large amounts of granulation tissue and more scarring.

What are the three layers of the integument?

Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.

What are primary hairs?

Thicker, longer, and generally straight or arched hairs that are dominant in a complex hair follicle.

What are secondary hairs?

Softer, shorter hairs that are generally wavy or bristled, predominant in species with wool-type coats.

Where are sebaceous glands found?

All over the body except in specialized regions like paw pads and the planum nasale.

What is the function of sebaceous glands?

To produce sebum, which keeps skin and hair soft, pliant, and waterproof.

What happens when sebaceous glands become overactive?

Excessive sebum can clog hair follicles, forming whiteheads and potentially leading to pimples.

Where are anal glands located in cats and dogs?

At the 5 and 7 o'clock positions relative to the anus.

What is the purpose of anal glands?

To coat feces with secretions for elimination, marking territory, and attracting a mate.

What is the epiphysis of a long bone?

The enlarged ends of the long bone, made mostly of spongy bone with red marrow.

What is the function of articular cartilage?

Reduces friction at joints and absorbs shock during movement.

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A layer of hyaline cartilage between the epiphysis and diaphysis, site of longitudinal bone growth.

What is the diaphysis of a long bone?

The shaft of the bone, composed mostly of compact bone.

What is compact bone?

Dense, solid bone forming the outer layer of the diaphysis, providing strength and protection.

What is spongy bone?

Bone found mainly in the epiphyses, containing many spaces and housing red marrow.

What is the medullary cavity?

A hollow central cavity in the diaphysis that contains yellow marrow.

What is yellow marrow?

Fatty tissue inside the medullary cavity that stores fat and can convert to red marrow in severe blood loss.

What is the endosteum?

A thin membrane lining the medullary cavity containing bone-forming and bone-destroying cells.

What is the periosteum?

A tough, fibrous membrane covering the outside of the bone, anchoring tendons and ligaments.