Psych Stats quiz 1

Scientific Method steps

1. observation

2. question

3. hypothesis

4. prediction

5. test the prediction

6. interation time or it is successful!

operationalization

way to measure variables

reliability

degree to which independent measurements of a behavior under the study are consistent - are you getting the same response if tested repeatedly?

validity

degree to which it measures what it is intended to measure - are you measuring what you say you’re measuring

how to study development? list

1. cross-sectional

2. longitudinal

3. microgenetic

cross-sectional study

compares children of diff ages on a give behavior, ability, or characteristics - studied within the same time period

longitudinal

follwing the same children over a substsantial long period + observing the changes/development

microgenetic

track ages, focus on a small point in the target age range and do an in-depth depiction of the processes that produce change

cohort effects (threat to study)

When a group of people who were born around the same time are similarly exposed to historical experiences, that influence the dependent variable of interest - ex) smoking in the 90s vs now

causation or correlation

correlation doesn’t equal causation - threat to study

methods for studying development

1. naturalistic observation

2. structure observation

3. interviews and questionnaires

4. correlational

5. experiemntal

naturalistic observation

examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher.

structured observation

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participants behavior.

interviews and questionnaires

Structured interview: a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions.

- Clinical interview: experimenter can go off-script.

Questionnaires: When you’re lucky enough to work with kids who can read

correlational

comparison of existing groups of children or examination of relations among children’s scores of different variables.

experimental

Random assignment of children to groups and experimental control of procedures presented to each group.

ethical consideration

• Do no harm

• Informed consent

• Parental consent

• Coercion

• Deception

• Anonymity vs. confidentiality

• Known & unknown risks

periods of prenatal development

zygote —> embryo —> fetus —> baby

germinal —> embryonic —> fetal

conception 3-8 weeks 9weeks-birth

~ 2weeks

germinal period

• zyogote

• conception-2weeks

• cells split

• forms placenta

• “stem cells” forms embryo

• amniotic sac + fluid

hawthorne effect

people may alter behavior if they know they are being observed

embryonic period

• 3-8 weeks

• from this period, areas near the ehad develop earlier than those furhter away

• cephalocaudal developement

• brain development - Neurogenesis, Cell migration/differentiation, Myelination, Synaptogenesis, Pruning

Neurogenesis

the proliferation of neurons through cell division

Synaptogenesis

the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons.

fetal period

By 9 weeks, a fetus has…

• A giant head

• All of its internal organs

• Begun the process of sexual differentiation

• Nails!

teratogens

• A potentially harmful agent

• •Dose–response radiation: Potential problems depend on how the mother is exposed to the teratogen and for how long. The more exposure, the more at risk the fetus becomes.

hazards to prenatal period

cigarettes, alcohol, maternal factors, occupational hazards, environmental pollution

chromosomes

Molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information

genotypes

the exact genetic material that an individual inherits (i.e., the pairing of the alleles)

phenotype

the observable expression of the genotype, including both physical characteristics and behavior

genetic transmissions issues

The field of epigenetics

the study of mechanisms that will switch genes on and off without changes to the DNA sequence itself

plasticity

process that helps brain adapt to things

experience-expectant processes

expect taht we will encounter experiences in the world around us; our brain is ready for it

Creates vulnerability. If that experience isn’t encountered, then the neural circuits won’t be fine-tuned and developed

• gneerally occurs early during development

• generally universal - we all expect visual stimuli

• sensitive periods

experience-dependent plasticity

what you learn/how your brain develops is dependent on the experience we live

• can occur over the life span in response to complex stimuli

• more unique to individuals + their experiences

• no optimal period

sensation

The processing of basic information from the world through the sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.)

perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information about objects, events, and the world around us.

taste for fetus

• Amniotic Fluid contains a variety of flavors, and prefers some more than others

• Some mothers with Polyhydramnios (too much amniotic fluid)

smell for fetus

Amniotic fluid contains odorants

Food and drink with strong odors (e.g., curry, coffee) can be detected in amniotic fluid during childbirth

hearing for fetus

can hear - soap opera example

habituation

A simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation

dehabituation

The introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus.

preferential looking technique

A method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two patterns or two objects at a time to see if the infants have a preference for one over the other.

visual acuity

sharpness of visual discrimination.

Poor at birth but adult-like by 8 months

Deficits are in infants’ contrast sensitivity (the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern) because of the spacing of cones in the eye

early visual processing

1 month: perimeters, focus on high contrast features

2 months: perimeters, plus details (focus on eyes)

4+ months: focus on mouth

Object segregation: 

The identification of separate objects in a visual array.

cues to depth perception

Around 1 month:

Optical expansion: 

closer objects are bigger

Around 4 months:

Binocular disparity:

Differences in retinal images between the two eyes.

Around 6-7 months:

Monocular depth cues emerge:

Examples include: interposition, convergence of lines in the distance, relative size.

Stereopsis:

How the brain corrects for and interprets binocular disparity to perceive depth.