Introduction to Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathophysiology

Skeleton

bony framework of the body which forms the cavities, fossae, joints, and attachment to muscles

Axial Skeleton

The axis of the body which protects the most vital parts of the body

Axial Skeleton

the part of the skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and the ribs

Appendicular Skeleton

the part of a skeleton that consists of the shoulder girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs

Cranial, Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvic

Four main cavities in the body where the body organs are contained and protected

Cranial Cavity

Cavity that contains the brain

Thoracic Cavity

Cavity that contains the trachea, 2 bronchi, 2 lungs; heart, aorta, superior and inferior venae cavae, and numerous blood vessels; esophagus; lymph vessels and lymph nodes; some important nerves

Abdominal Cavity

largest body cavity

Abdominal Cavity

Cavity that contains the stomach, most of the small intestines, and most of the large intestine; liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, and pancreas; spleen; 2 kidneys and the upper part of the ureters; 2 adrenal glands; numerous blood vessels, lymph vessels and nodes, and nerves

Pelvic Cavity

cavity that is roughly funnel-shaped which extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity

Pelvic Cavity

Cavity that contains the sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus; some loops of the small intestine, some loops of the large intestine; urinary bladder, lower parts of the ureters and urethra; In females, uterus, uterine tubes, ovaries, and vagina; In males, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, spermatic cords, deferent ducts, ejaculatory ducts, urethra

Physiology

study of how the body systems work, and the ways in which their integrated activities maintain the life and health of the individual

Electrolytes

ionic compound in water that conducts electricity

muscle and nerve

An electrolyte conducts electricity, essential for __________________ function.

osmotic

An electrolyte exert ________ pressure, keeping body fluids in their own compartments.

buffers

An electrolyte acts as _________ to resist pH changes in body fluids.

Potassium

primary/major cations in the intracellular compartment

Sodium

primary/major cations in the extracellular compartment

Phosphate

primary/major anions in the intracellular compartment

Chloride

primary/major anions in the extracellular compartment

Magnesium

secondary/minor cations in the intracellular compartment

Calcium

secondary/minor cations in the extracellular compartment

Sulfate

secondary/minor anions in the intracellular compartment

Bicarbonate

secondary/minor anions in the extracellular compartment

Acid

a substance that releases hydrogen ions when in a solution

Base (Alkali)

a substance that accepts hydrogen ions, often with the release of hydroxyl (OH-) ions

Salt

releases other anions and cations when dissolved

power of Hydrogen

what is the meaning of pH

pH scale

standard scale of measurement of hydrogen ion concentration

acidic

pH level of 0-6

neutral

pH level of 7

basic

pH level of 8-14

6.0-8.5

normal pH level scale of bile

7.35-7.45

normal pH level scale of blood

1.5-3.5

normal pH level scale of gastric juice

5.8-7.4

normal pH level scale of saliva

4.5-8.0

normal pH level scale of urine

Buffers

they stabilize the body by temporarily neutralize fluctuations in pH

lungs and kidneys

the two organs most active in maintaining physiologic pH

decrease, decrease, increase, basic

When you are breathing rapidly, the CO2 levels _______, level of Hydrogen ions _______, and the pH level ______, meaning it is ______.

increase, increase, decrease, acidic

When you are breathing slowly, the CO2 levels _______, level of Hydrogen ions _______, and the pH level ______, meaning it is ______.

Kidneys

regulate blood pH by adjusting the excretion of hydrogen through urination and bicarbonate ions by reabsorbing it in the body

Acidic

In a/an ______ condition, hydrogen ion excretion (urination) by the kidneys is increased, and increased reabsorption of bicarbonate in the body.

basic

In a/an ______ condition, hydrogen ion excretion (urination) by the kidneys is decreased, and decreased reabsorption of bicarbonate in the body.

Respiratory Acidosis

due to conditions which decreases respiratory rate

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Opiates

Respiratory Acidosis

Respiratory Acidosis/Alkalosis? Sedatives

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Anesthetics

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Guillain-Barre Syndrome

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Polio

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Multiple Sclerosis

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Airway Obstruction

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Metabolic Acidosis

due to conditions resulting in excessive gain of acids or excessive loss of bases

Metabolic Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Kidney Failure

Metabolic Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Ketoacidosis

Metabolic Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Lactic Methanol/Formaldehyde Intoxication

Metabolic Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Diarrhea

Metabolic Acidosis/Respiratory Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Salicylate Intoxication

Metabolic Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Intoxication

Metabolic Acidosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Ethylene glycol

Respiratory Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Pneumonia

Respiratory Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Pulmonary embolus

Respiratory Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? High Altitude

Respiratory Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Psychogenic

Respiratory Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Panic/Anxiety Attacks

Metabolic Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Loop Diuretics (Furosemide)

Metabolic Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Thiazide Diuretics

Metabolic Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Vomiting

Metabolic Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Hyperaldosteronism

Metabolic Alkalosis

Acidosis/Alkalosis? Ingestion of Alkaline Drugs (Sodium Bicarbonate)

External Environment

environment that surrounds the body; source of oxygen and nutrients and where waste products of cellular activity are eventually excreted

Skin

provides an effective barrier between the body tissues and the constantly changing, often hostile, external environment

Internal Environment

water-based medium in which body cells exist

Interstitial or Tissue Fluid

where cells are bathed; where oxygen and nutrients are stored

Homeostasis

composition of the internal environment is tightly controlled; fairly constant state; unchanging

the same

Homeo- means:

standing

-Stasis means:

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

the mechanism in which most systems of the body are regulated by:

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

a feedback mechanism that any movement of a control system away from its normal set point is negated/reversed

Negative

Negative/Positive: Core Temperature

Negative

Negative/Positive: Water and Electrolyte Concentrations

Negative

Negative/Positive: pH of body fluids

Negative

Negative/Positive: Blood Glusoce Levels

Negative

Negative/Positive: Blood and Tissue Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Levels

Positive Feedback Mechanism

feedback mechanism that is rare in healthy individuals, not homeostatic, and response that is progressively amplified

Positive

Negative/Positive: Blood clotting

Positive

Negative/Positive: uterine contractions during labor

Positive

Negative/Positive: Hormonal Surge during the Menstrual Cycle

Positive

Negative/Positive: Decrease in blood pressure beyond the normal range

Pathology

study of abnormalities

Pathophysiology

considers how these abnormalities affect body functions, often causing illness

Signs

objective findings observed by a healthcare professional during examination

Symptoms

subjective experiences reported by the patient

Illness

overall state of feeling unwell due to a combination of symptoms

Sickness

a specific condition affecting a person, often encompassing various diseases and disorders

Disorder

a disruption in the body’s normal functions affecting well-being

Disease

a specific, identifiable condition with a known cause, characteristic symptoms, and signs