2: lipids + carbohydrates

simplest carbohydrates

monosaccharides

polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones (and their derivities)

carbohydrates

empirical formula of carbohydrates

(CH2O)n

monosacharides (simple sugars) contain ____—___carbons and _____ hydroxyl groups

3-7 carbon

2 or more hydroxyl groups

can monosaccharides exist in many isometric forms?

YES

• dihydroxyacetone

• d-glyceraldehyde

• L-glyceraldehyde

are all ..

monosaccharides

monosacharide nomenclature is based on what two characteristics?

1. number of carbons (triose- heptose)

2. most oxidized group (ketose vs aldose)

are ribose and glucose aldoses or ketoses?

how many carbons does each have?

aldose

ribose= 5 = pentose

glucose = 6 = hexose

are fructose, ribulose, and dihydroxyacetone ketoses or aldoses?

how many carbons does each have?

ketose

dihydroxyacetone = 3 = triose

ribulose = 5 = pentose

fructose = 6 = hexose

dihydroxyacetone and glyceraldehyde are both

triose

glucose and fructose are both hexoses that can be used for what process?

glycolysis

molecules that have identical molecular formulas that differ in how the atoms are ordered

constitutional isomers

glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone both have the empirical formula (C3H6O3) but one is an aldose and the other is a ketose

what is this an example?

constitutional isomers

stereoisomers are molecules that differ in spatial arrangement but not ________ _____

bonding order

how can you figure out how many different stereoisomers exist for a monosaccharide?

2ⁿ

n= number of chiral centers (asymmetric carbons)

how can you tell if a monosaccharide has d or l sterochemistry ?

d = if OH farthest from most oxidized carbon is on RIGHT

l= if OH farthest from most oxidized carbon is on LEFT

what is the difference between diastereomers and enantiomers ?

enantiomers = all chiral centers flipped (mirror)

diasteromers = not ALL chiral centers flipped

a carbon bonded to four different substituents

asymmetric carbon

diastereomers differing in configuration only at a SINGLE asymmetric center

epimers

isomers that differ at a new asymmetric carbon formed on ring closure

anomer

aldehyde + alcohol —>

hemiacetal

ketone + alcohol —>

hemiketal

monosacharides are predominately in ______ formation inside cells (in solution)

ring

in aquods solutions the aldehyde or ketone group of a sugar molecule tends to react with a _______ group of the SAME molecule closing the molecule into a ring

hydroxyl

glucose (hexose) forms a _________ ring because of its similarity to ______

pyranose

pyran

fructose (hexose) forms a _____ ring because of its similarity to ________

furanose

furan

which carbon of fructose gains chirality once it becomes a furanose in solution?

2 (carbon that used to be ketone— will have OH)

which carbon of glucose gains chirality once it becomes pyranose in solution?

1 (carbon next to the O in the hexagon that isnt methylhydroxy) —- this carbon used to be aldehyde

• sugars that contain two or more monosaccharides linked by O-glycosidic bonds

_________ is a disaccharide containing two sugars

sucrose

how are O-glycosidic bonds created?

OH from one sugar combines with OH from another sugar (could be from anomeric carbon) come together and create water —- one O remains

what is meant by a reducing ends when monosacharides form glycosidic bonds?

when monosaccharides don’t use up the OH from their anomeric carbons in the glycosidic bond they can unfold iinto their open-chain form from their ring shape

what is meant by non- reducing ends when monosacharides form glycosidic bonds?

anomeric carbon is used up in glycosidic bond so it is locked into its ring form and won’t be able to go back into its open chain form

what is the difference between alpha and beta glycosidic bonds?

if OH that is participating in bond formation is on the bottom than it is alpha and if it on top it is beta

the disaccharide sucrose is formed from _______ and _________

glucose (aldose) and fructose (ketose)

in the formation of the sucrose the anomeric carbon of glucose (C1 -a ) and the anomeric carbon of fructose (C2 - b) form a glycosidic link

is sucrose a reducing or non-reducing sugar?

with this information, what is the name of their glycosidic linkage?

non-reducing

sucrose is locked in its position

a-1, b-2 - glycosidic linkage

maltose is a disaccharide made of two glucose molecules

the bond forms from C1 of one glucose and C4 of another glucose

is maltose a reducing or non-reducing sugar?

what type of bond is present?

reducing because the C1 carbon of one glucose is free to turn back into its open chain

1,4 glycosidic bond

disaccharide resulting from the hydrolysis of large oligosaccharides that consist of two linked glucose molecules

joined by 1,4- glycosidic linkage

maltose

maltose can be hydrolyzed to glucose by _________ (_____________)

maltase (a-glucosidase)

disaccharide that consists of galactose linked to glucose

lactose (milk-sweet cow in the galaxy)

lactose can be hydrolyzed by _________ in human beings and by __ -_______ in bacteria

• lactase

• beta galactoses

is lactose a reducing sugar? how do you know?

1,4 bond between galactose and glucose

C4 is not using up its anomeric carbon and can be reduced

which monomers have useful functions on their own while their polymers are simply used for storage?

monosaccharide and fatty acids

which monomers are more useful once they have formed polymers?

nucleotides and amino acids

what is glycogen?

long chains made of glucose that are used for storage

glucose is stored as the MACROmolecule ________ to provide _________

glycogen

energy

________ (_____) : large polymeric oligosaccharides formed by the linkage of multiple monosaccharides

• plays roles in energy storage and structural integrity

polysaccharides (glycans)

what is the difference between polysaccharides and homopolymers?

polysaccharide made up on multiple different monosaccharides formed for storage

homopolymer = large chain of SAME monosaccharide formed for storage

where can glycogen be found, where is it stored?

granules can be found in the cytoplasm of liver cells

what is the most common homopolymer is animal cells?

glycogen (made only of glucose)

most of the glucose units of glycogen are linked by _______ glycosidic linkages while BRANCHES are formed by _____ glycosidic linkages

1,4

1, 6

glycogen can be hydrolyzed by

a-amylase

___________ increases the surface area to allow for between access for enzymes to rapidly break down glycogen

this is possible through which types of bonds?

branching

1,6 glycosidic linkages

are alpha or beta 1,4 glycosidic linkages within polysaccharides favor bent helical structures more suitable for MAMMALIAN storage

what are examples of polysaccharides composed of these 1,4 glycosidic bonds between monosacharides?

ALPHA

starch and glycogen

are alpha or beta 1,4 glycosidic linkages within polysaccharides favor straight chains optimal for structural purposes in PLANTS?

what are examples of polysaccharides composed of these 1,4 glycosidic bonds between monosacharides?

BETA

cellulose

what is the difference between alpha and beta 1,4 glycosidic linkages between monosaccharides to make polysaccharides?

alpha = mammalian storage = glycogen + starch

beta = plant structure= cellulose

when cells need more ATP then they can generate from ______ molecules taken in from the bloodstream they break down ________

food

glycogen

where do each of these steps of glycogen conversion take place?

1. polysacharide —> sugars —> glucose—>—> pyruvate

2. pyruvate —> acytelcoA

1. cytosol

2. mitochondria

where does the following conversions take place to create ATP?

1. fats—> fatty acids

2. fatty acids —> acytel CoA

1. cytosol

2. mitochondria

glycogen is considered a short/long term storage of energy and has the largest stores in _____ and ______

short

liver and muscle

Even though both muscle and the liver store glycogen what is different about the release from both?

muscle will only supply glucose to itself

liver will supply glucose through the bloodstream to any organ requiring energy

on average a human stores enough GLYCOGEN for only about _______ of normal activities (energy demands) but enough FAT to last for nearly a ______

1 day

month

which enzyme breaks down glycogen into glucose when ATP is low?

glycogen phosphorylase

glycogen phosphorylase breaks down glycogen into

_____________ first which is then converted to ___________

glucose -1 -phosphate

glucose -6 - phosphate

what is the difference between amylase and

explain the difference in the breakdown of glycogen when released by the liver vs the muscle

muscle= glycogen phosphorylase convert glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate which then undergoes glycolysis

liver= glucose-6-phosphate is further converted into glucose using glucose phosphotase before going through glycolysis and being released into the blood stream

4 physiological roles off FATTY ACIDS:

1. _____ molecules

2. building blocks of _____ lipids and _________lipids

3. many proteins are modified by the _______ attachments of fatty acids, which function to target proteins to membrane locations

4. fatty acid derivatives serve as _______ and intracellular messengers

1. fuel

2. phospholipids and glycolipids

3. covalent

4. hormones

all fatty acids have a ________ group at one end and a long __________ tail at the other

carboxlyl

hydrocarbon

fatty acids that have double bonds are considered to be uunsaturated/saturated

UNSATURATED with hydrogen bonds

triaglycerols (TAGs) are the storage form of fatty acids as _________ _______ with ______

uncharged esters and glycerol

fatty acids are stored in cells as an energy reserve (fats and oils) through an _______ linkage to _______ to form _____________ (____________)

ester

glycerol

triglycerides / triglycerides

how can you identify the chemical composition of fatty acids within the lipid molecules?

the number of carbons (starting from ester carbon!) and number of double bonds

identify the following fatty acids within this triglyceride

C16:0

C18:0

C18:1

triglyceride structure is determine by _______ _______ composition

fatty acid

which color represents glycerol ?

light blue

is the following a simple triglyceride?

why or why not?

NO bc/ all of the fatty acids are not identical

do lipids with saturated or unsaturated fatty acids have higher energy density and why?

saturated

they are linear and able to be stacked ontop of each other for storage

lipids with saturated/unsaturated fatty acids are solid at room temp (fats)

saturated (linear + compact)

lipids with saturated/unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature (oil)

unsaturated

___________ are highly concentrated energy stores

where are they stored?

triaglycerols (TAGs)

adipose tissue and muscle

fuel-rich white tissue that is located throughout the body notably under the skin (subcutaneous fat) and surrounding internal organs (visceral fat)

adipose tissue

fat cells that makeup adipose tissue

• major site of triaglycerol accumulation

• specialized for triaglyceral synthesis, storage, and mobilization into guel

adipocytes

what occupies most of the adipocyte volume within adipose tissue?

what are they surrounded by that allows them to undergo lipid metabolism?

lipid droplets— made of triacylglycerols

surrounded by phospholipid monolayer and proteins

triaglycerol degredation from a triacylglycerol to a diacylglycerol to a monoacylglycerol is made possible by intestinal _______ secreted by the ___________

lipases

pancreas

in _______ cells:

triacylglycerol —> glycerol + fatty acids

in _______cell:

glycerol + glycolysis —> pyruvate

glycerol + gluconeogenesis —> glucose

in other tissues (ENERGY)

fatty acid __________ ——> acytelCoA —> ____ ____ _________ —> CO2 + H2O

fat

liver

oxidation citric acid cycle

glycerol from triacylglycerol is converted to a _______ _____________ in the ______

glycolytic intermediate in the liver

• glycerol is absorbed by the _______

• phosphorylated and oxidized to __________ ____________

• isomerized to _________________

• liver

• dihydroxyacetone phosphate

• glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate

fatty acids are transported via _________ for energy (ATP) supply in tissues

• low glucose levels in the blood trigger the _________ of triacylglycerol molecules in fat droplets to ______ ______and _______

• these fatty acids enter the ________ where they bind to _______ protein

• fatty acid transporters in the plasma membrane of cells that __________ fatty acids such as muscle cells then pass these fatty acids into the cytosol

• moved into the ____________ for energy production

bloodstream

hydrolysis

fatty acids and glycerol

blood albumin

oxidize

mitochondria

______ is the most efficient energy source

_______ of one gram of fat releases twice as much energy as the ________ of _____________

fat

oxidization oxidation glycogen

fatty acids provide energy to all tissues in the body except the _______

the ________ relies of circulating _______ or ________bodies when available because fatty acids are poorly utilized in this organ

brain

brain glucose ketone

in phospholipids, two of the OH groups in _______ are linked to fatty acids while the third OH group is linked to ______ _______ which carries a negative charge which is further linked to a small _______ group

glycerol

phosphoric acid

polar

what are the 5 polar groups found in phospholipids?

Serine

Ethanolamine

Choline

Glycerol
Inositol

which phospholipid is pictured ?

phosphatidylSERINE

SUPER has COO- AND NH3+

which phospholipid is pictured ?

phosphatidylCHOLINE

choline is crazy for methylated nitrogen

which phospholipid is pictured ?

phosphatidylETHANOLAMINE

ethan chill he only got one NH3+

which phospholipid is pictured ?

phosphatidylINOSITOL

complicated chair like its name

which phospholipid is pictured ?

diphospatidylglycerol (cardiolipin)

we knowww glycerol from triacyylglycerides (3 OH 3 Cs)

lipid _______ based on chemical properties of fatty acids are critical in biology

• fatty acids have hydrophilic ____ and hydrophobic _______

• in water they can form surface ______ or spherical _______

• their derivatives can form from larger aggregates held together by _______ forces

aggregation

head

tail

hydrophobic

_______ form large, spherical fat droplets in the cell cytoplasm

_______ and _______ form self-sealing lipid bilayers which are the basis for all cell membranes

triacylglycerides

phospholipids and glycolipids

_______ are a common class of lipidsi that have a common multi-ring structure

steroids