long term memory: encoding

encoding

the process of acquiring information and transferring it to Long Term Memory

retrieval

bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory

coding

to refer to the form in which information is represented.

encoding

refer to the process used to get information into Long Term Memory

maintenance rehearsal

this type of rehearsal results in little or no encoding and therefore poor memory, so you don’t remember the number when you want to call it again later

elaborative rehearsal

find a way to relate it to something meaningful which results in better memory than maintenance rehearsal

levels of processing theory

memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives

depth of processing

distinguishes between shallow processing and deep processing

Shallow processing

involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over

Deep processing

involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else.

deep processing

According to levels of processing theory, _________results in better memory than shallow processing

The basic idea behind levels of processing theory

—that memory retrieval is affected by how items are encoded

paired-associate learning

a list of word pairs is presented and then later, the first word of each pair is presented, and the participant’s task is to remember the word it was paired with.

self-reference effect

Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself.

generation effect

Generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it

retrieval cue

—a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory.

Create connections, Active creation, Organization

FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING

memory retrieval

But the elaboration that results in better memory can also be achieved by testing memory

testing effect

The enhanced performance due to retrieval practice

retrieval practice effect

result shows that being tested is important for learning because when testing was stopped for Group 3 once items were recalled correctly, performance decreased

elaboration

A process that helps transfer the material you are reading into long-term memory

proactive interference

a memory effect which occurs when previously learned information interferes with learning new information.

true

indicates that repeatedly testing yourself on material you are studying pays dividends in improved memory

true

Testing is actually a form of generation, because it requires active involvement with the material

goal of organizing material

create a framework that helps relate some information to other information to make the material more meaningful and therefore strengthen encoding

true

Organization also helps reduce the load on your memory.

Organization

helps reduce the load on your memory and relates to chunking

chunking

Grouping small elements into larger, more meaningful ones increases memory

true

Research has shown that memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short sessions, with breaks in between, than when it is concentrated in one long session, even if the total study time is the same.

spacing effect

advantage for short study sessions

rereading

it can create the illusion that learning is occurring

avoid illusions of learning

rereading, familiarity effect, highlighting

true

taking notes on the laptop isn’t a good idea because the laptop creates the temptation to engage in distracting activities like surfing the web or sending texts or emails.

true

Computer note taking can result in shallower processing of the material, and therefore poorer performance on exams.

true

creating hand-written notes are more likely to involve synthesizing and summarizing the lecture, which results in deeper encoding and better learnin

true

“active” and “involved” note taking is better than “mindless transcribing.”

free recall

a participant is simply asked to recall stimuli. These stimuli could be words previously presented by the experimenter or events experienced earlier in the participant’s life

cued recall

the participant is presented with retrieval cues to aid in recall of the previously experienced stimuli, “hints”

three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions a

(1) encoding specificity
(2) state-dependent learning

(3) transfer-appropriate processing

transfer-appropriate processing

matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval.

state-dependent learning

matching the internal mood or state of awareness present during encoding and retrieval;

encoding specificity

matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur

consolidation

the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

Synaptic consolidation

takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses

Systems consolidation

which takes place over months or even years, involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain

long-term potentiation (LTP)

enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulatio

hippocampus

is essential for forming new memories,

standard model of consolidation

the participation of the hippocampus is crucial during early stages of memory, as it is replaying the neural activity associated with a memory and sending this information to the cortex

reactivation

helps form direct connections between the various cortical areas

retrograde amnesia

This loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury

graded amnesia

—the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to become less severe for earlier events

reconsolidation.

when a memory is retrieved (remembered), it becomes fragile, like it was when it was originally formed, and that when it is in this fragile state, it needs to be consolidated again

anisomycin

an antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis and so prevents changes at the synapse that are responsible for the formation of new memories

PTSD

This idea that memories can be changed, has led to practical applications designed to treat conditions such as

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

following a traumatic experience, a person experiences “flashbacks” of the experience, often accompanied by extreme anxiety and physical symptoms.

propranolol

This drug blocks activation of stress hormone receptors in the amygdala, a part of the brain important for determining the emotional components of memory.

Consolidation

is the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state into a more permanent state

true

Consolidation is facilitated by sleep.

true

retrieval of episodic memories can involve the hippocampus