A&P 2nd Semester Study Guide

Flashcards for A&P 2nd Semester Study Guide.

What are the parts of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Brain and spinal cord

What are the parts of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Everything throughout the body, connecting CNS to everything else, including somatic (voluntary movements) and autonomic (involuntary) functions.

What is the function of afferent neurons?

Take sensory information towards the CNS

What is the function of efferent neurons?

Take messages away from CNS

What is the role of dendrites in a neuron?

Receive signals from other nerve cells and transmit them toward the cell body.

What is the function of the cell body (soma) of a neuron?

Main area with nucleus and organelles; takes in signals from dendrites and sends impulses down the axon.

What is the function of the axon in a neuron?

Thin area that transmits electrical impulses from the cell body.

What happens at the terminals of a neuron?

Electrical signals are turned into chemical signals.

What is a synapse?

Area of communication between neurons, transmitting signals from one neuron to another.

What is the fundamental unit of the nervous system?

Neuron (responsible for sending and receiving signals)

What is the role of Schwann cells?

Glial cells in the PNS providing support for nerve cells by forming myelin sheath and acting as an insulator.

What are Nodes of Ranvier and their function?

Divets in between each myelin sheath that helps with potential conduction.

What is threshold stimulus?

The minimum amount of stimulus for an action potential to begin.

What is the function of myelin?

Insulate and protect axons.

What are gyri?

The raised areas of the brain, almost like ridges or peaks.

What are sulci?

The grooves found on the brain, small divots.

What is the main function of the thalamus?

Main area for information relay (all except smell).

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Control center of the brain, coordinates the body's internal functions to maintain homeostasis.

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

Voluntary movements, balance, posture, and motor skills

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

Connects brain to spinal cord, in charge of involuntary movements.

What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

Outermost layer (grey matter), largest part of brain, in charge of communication, memory, and sensation.

What is the function of the limbic system and its components?

Responsible for emotions, memory, and behavior (amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and hippocampus).

What is the function of Broca’s area?

Controls speech and language processing, as well as the motor skills to produce speech.

What is the function of Wernicke’s area?

Controls speech and understanding of written language.

What is the function of the vagus nerve?

10th cranial nerve controlling the parasympathetic system, heart rate, breathing etc.

What do neuroglia do?

Hold neurons in place for structural support and protection, can help with myelin production.

What is the 'all-or-none' principle?

Nerve cells send signals all with the same force regardless of how strong it was when received.

Which brain part links the endocrine and nervous systems?

The hypothalamus

What are the layers of the meninges in order?

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

What is hydrocephalus?

Abnormal build-up of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain.

What are the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?

Relaxation, rest, and digestion

What are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?

Fight or flight response

What are the types of sensory receptors?

Mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors

What is referred pain?

Pain in a different location from the source of the pain because of similar location where nerves converge.

Where are smell sensations first received?

Olfactory sensory neurons

What are the different types of taste sensations?

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory)

What are the pupil, iris, and cornea?

Pupil is the black opening of the eye; iris is the colored part of the eye; cornea is the transparent dome-shaped outer layer.

What are the causes of blind spots in our vision?

Eye diseases, brain diseases, and psychological conditions cause lack of vision receptors.

What is the path of light from outside our body until it hits the retina?

Cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina

What is the function of cones?

Detect different colors and enable bright light vision and sharp details.

What is the function of rods?

Detect light and are responsible for night vision.

What causes the conditions of Astigmatism, cataracts, and macular degeneration?

Astigmatism is caused by irregularly shaped cornea or lens, cataracts are caused by clouding of the eye's natural lens due to protein breakdown, and macular degeneration is caused by damage to the macula (central part of the retina).

What is the function of semicircular canals?

Detect angular acceleration and rotating head movement and help maintain balance.

What is the path of sound waves from outside our bodies until the oval window?

Outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear

Where are erythrocytes produced? What is their function? Which hormone stimulates their production?

Produced in bone marrow, transports oxygen for cellular respiration, and kidneys release erythropoietin signaling bone marrow to release more red blood cells.

What are the differences between A, B, AB, and O blood types?

A has A antigens and B antibodies; B has B antigens and A antibodies; AB has A and B antigens and neither A nor B antibodies; O has neither A nor B antigens and both A and B antibodies.

What are the differences between + and – blood types?

Presence or absence of the Rh factor on red blood cells

What are the differences between veins and arteries?

Veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart, while arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.

What is the function of capillaries?

Facilitate oxygen, waste removal, and nutrients between blood and the body's tissues.

What is the path of blood through the body and heart?

Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle (through tricuspid valve), pulmonary valve, pulmonary veins (entering left atrium), left atrium (through bicuspid valve into left ventricle), aortic valve to aorta, to arteries.

What are chordae tendineae and their function?

Fibrous cords that connect the papillary muscles to the atrioventricular valves of the heart and prevent AV valves from turning inside out during ventricular contraction.

What are the pulmonary and systemic circuits?

Pulmonary is the route of blood flow between the heart and the lungs; systemic delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

What is the myocardium?

Muscular tissue of the heart that pumps blood throughout the body.

What is the path of air in the respiratory system?

Nose or mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli.

How do vocal cords work?

High pitch = fast vibration; low pitch = low vibration; loud = more air; quiet = less air.

What are tidal volume, inspiratory capacity, and residual volume?

Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath; inspiratory capacity is the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled; residual volume is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal forced expiration.

What are Emphysema and Bronchitis?

Emphysema damaged alveoli (air sacs), making it difficult to breathe out while Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchial tubes with mucous production and chronic cough.

What is the path of food through the body?

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum

What is the path of blood through the kidney?

Aorta -> renal artery -> glomerulus-> efferent arteriole-> peritubular capillaries-> renal vein

What are the pancreas functions?

Produces amylase (carbs), lipase (fats), proteases (proteins), insulin (lower blood sugar), glucagon (raise blood sugar).

What is diabetes?

Chronic disease where the body is unable to regulate blood sugar. There are different types.

What are the functions of the kidney?

Filtering waste and excess water from the blood to produce urine, regulating blood pressure, balancing minerals, and helping produce red blood cells.

What is a nephron?

The functional unit of the kidney.

What are Villi and microvilli?

Villi - increase the surface area of the small intestine, Microvilli - further increase the surface area and contain enzymes that help break down nutrients

What is peristalsis?

Involuntary muscular contractions to provide movement.

What are the differences between menstruation, menopause, and pregnancy?

Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining; menopause is the permanent cessation of menstruation; pregnancy is the state of carrying a developing embryo or fetus.

What are the parts of the female reproductive system?

Includes internal (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina) and external organs (labia majora/minora, mons pubis).

Where does egg production happen? Fertilization?

Produced in ovaries, fertilized in fallopian tubes.

What is the corpus luteum and where does it form?

A temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary following ovulation.

What are the functions of the testes, vas deferens, and epididymis?

Testes produce sperm and hormones; vas deferens transports sperm; epididymis stores and matures sperm.

What is the function of the placenta?

Connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall for nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange.

What hormones are involved in childbirth?

Oxytocin, endorphins, adrenaline, prolactin, prostaglandins.

What are the steps of childbirth?

Cervical dilation, descent and birth of baby, after birth, postpartum recovery.

What are the differences between an epidural and episiotomy?

An epidural is injected into the spinal cord, and an episiotomy is a cut to enlarge the vaginal opening.

What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis produces two diploid daughter cells, while meiosis produces four unique haploid daughter cells.

What are the examples of nonspecific immune defenses?

Skin, mucous membrane, enzymes, phagocytes, natural killer cells, fever, inflammation, interferons, and stomach acid.

How do the specific immune defenses work?

Antibody production, T cell response, memory, humoral and cellular immunity.

What is inflammatory response?

The body’s immediate reaction to injury or infection, characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

What are antibody functions?

Neutralizing pathogens, poisoning them for destruction by phagocytes, and activating the complement system.

What are the differences between active and passive immunity?

Active develops after exposure or vaccination; passive is acquired through the transfer of antibodies.

What are allergies?

The immune system mistakenly identifies a harmless substance as harmful, overreacting.

What are autoimmune diseases?

The body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own healthy tissues.

How do vaccines/memory cells work?

Vaccines introduce a specific antigen to the body, triggering an immune response, and memory cells differentiate during response.