Airport Operations

Three major components of the air transport system

The airport (including concessionaires, tenants, partners, and airways control system), the airline, and the user

Airport Operator (associated organizations)

Local authorities/municipalities, central government, concessionaries, suppliers, utilities, police, fire service, ambulance/medical services, air traffic control, and meteorology

Nonusers (of the airport)

Airport neighbor organizations, local community groups, chambers of commerce, environmental activist groups, anti-noise groups, and neighborhood residents

National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS)

US plan making publicly owned airports eligible for federal aid in constructing most facilities, other than those related to commercial activities

US Airport Ownership

Ownership of large and medium-sized airports is almost entirely in the hands of local communities

Washington D.C. area airports

Two large airports operated directly by the federal government, but since June 1987 operated by the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority

Gateway International Airport (UK category)

Supports a wide range of international and intercontinental services

Regional Airports (UK category)

Provide short-haul international and domestic services

Local Airports (UK category)

Provide third-level services (scheduled passenger service with aircraft under 25 seats)

BAA plc

Company formed in 1987 when Britain privatized publicly owned airports under the British Airports Authority (including Heathrow and Gatwick), floated on the London stock market

BAA plc ownership change

Bought by Spanish company Grupo Ferrovial in July 2006, renamed BAA Airports Ltd, and ceased trading on the London Stock Exchange

Airside vs. Landside

The customary division of an airport's operations

Change of Mode (terminal function)

Provides linkage between air and ground vehicles

Processing (terminal function)

Provides the necessary facilities for ticketing, documentation, and control of passengers and freight

Change of Movement Type (terminal function)

Converts continual shipments of freight by trucks and departing passengers by car, bus, taxi, and train into aircraft-sized batches

Centralized Terminal System

Processing carried out in the main terminal building, with access to gates via piers, satellites, or apron transport; allows management to work closely with staff and requires less security staff

Decentralized Terminal System

Processing carried out in separate terminal buildings; keeps terminals on a human scale with short walking distances, but can require higher staffing since some administration/security functions must be duplicated per terminal

IATA recommended maximum walking distance

984 ft between curbside and the farthest gate area, developed to overcome unsatisfactory walking distances in decentralized designs

IATA recommended max curbside-to-check-in distance

328 ft between curbside and the farthest check-in counter

Examples of nonaeronautical airport activities

Food and beverage sales, duty-free shopping, car rentals, car parking, advertising, hotels/motels, and casinos/gaming machines

Disincentives to airport nonaeronautical revenue development

Income going directly to the national treasury, government giving duty-free franchise to a government-owned airline, or airport operating on a residual cost basis where nonaeronautical income reduces landing fees rather than benefiting the airport

Airport demand variation types

Annual variation, monthly peaks within a year, daily peaks within a month/week, and hourly peaks within a day

Standard Busy Rate (SBR)

A design standard used in the UK and Europe (notably by the former British Airports Authority), defined as the 13th highest hour of passenger flow, surpassed by only 29 hours of operation at higher flows

Busy-Hour Rate (BHR)

Also called the 5% busy hour; the hourly rate above which 5% of an airport's traffic is handled, meant to overcome SBR's inconsistent congestion levels across airports

Typical Peak-Hour Passengers

FAA measurement defined as the peak hour of the average peak day of the peak month; approximates closely to SBR

Busiest Timetable Hour (BTH)

A simple method for small airports with limited databases, calculated using average load factors and existing or projected timetables

Peak Profile Hour (PPH)

Method where the peak month is selected, then average hourly volume is computed for each hour across the month using its actual length

Factors affecting the nature of peaks

Domestic/international ratio, charter/LCC vs. scheduled ratio, long-haul/short-haul mix, geographic location, and nature of the catchment area

Why peak-hour demand affects airport infrastructure

Because during off-peak periods, aircraft operate at lower load factors than during attractive peak-hour slots, so infrastructure must be sized for the peak

Utilization and Load Factors (scheduling constraint)

Aircraft are expensive equipment that can only earn revenue when flying, creating pressure to maximize utilization

Reliability (scheduling constraint)

Utilization can be maximized, but is subject to the double constraints of load factors and punctuality

Long-Haul Scheduling Windows

Schedules must account for departure and arrival times at origin, enroute, and destination airports

Airport (Runway) Slots

Runway takeoff and landing capacity, which is limited due to necessary safety margins in separating arriving and departing aircraft

Declared Capacity

The limit authorities often place on the number of passengers that can pass through a terminal during a half-hour period

Long-Haul Crewing Constraints

Crews on long-haul flights are changed at slip airports, requiring timing to ensure fresh crews are available to relieve incoming flights

Short-Haul Convenience

Because short-haul flights often carry business travelers, departure/arrival times are critical, and flights lacking a suitable one-day return are hard to market

Aircraft Availability (scheduling factor)

Determined by A-, B-, C-checks, geographic location, number of operational cycles/hours, and style of operation

Obstacle-Limitation-Surface (OLS)

Criteria used to specify and derive declared distances, part of the airport approach

Operational Empty Weight (OEW)

The basic aircraft, with a nominal cabin configuration, without fuel or payload; usually includes the nominal mass of flight and cabin crew

Aircraft-Prepared-for-Service (APS) mass

A mass reported by manufacturers in addition to OEW; greater than OEW because it adds cabin variations and consumable allowance

Tankering

The practice of loading extra fuel to conduct an outward and return flight, or to minimize fuel pickup at an airport where fuel is expensive

Fuel load criteria

The requested fuel load must not cause the aircraft to exceed its maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) with estimated payload, nor exceed the aircraft's declared fuel capacity

Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW)

The weight limit that must not be exceeded, though an aircraft may depart the stand with a designated taxiing fuel load allowing a small additional weight increase

Regulated/Restricted Takeoff Weight (RTOW)

A reduction in allowable takeoff weight caused by runway limitations, which reduces the payload-range attainable from the airport

Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning (ACAP)

Publications produced in a format agreed upon among manufacturers, available from manufacturer websites or on request

Gross Performance

Aircraft performance as demonstrated for aircraft certification

Takeoff Run Required (TORR)

The net performance-assessed distance the aircraft might need to travel while still in contact with the ground

Takeoff Distance Required (TODR)

The net performance measurement to reach a screen height, measured from the point takeoff run commences

Accelerate-Stop Distance Required (ASDR)

The distance required to accelerate to V1 with all engines at takeoff power, experience an engine failure at V1, abort takeoff, and stop using only braking (no reverse thrust)

Landing Distance Required (LDR)

Measured from the runway threshold, including distance to the touchdown point and the landing run itself

NOTAMs

Notice to Airmen; the means by which an airport notifies changes to declared distances caused by work in progress, accidents, etc.

TODR determination

The greater of either the factored distance to the screen with all engines, or the unfactored distance with an engine out

First Segment (departure performance)

Critical engine inoperative, remaining engines at takeoff thrust, landing gear extended, flaps in takeoff position, aircraft at minimum safety speed

Second Segment (departure performance)

Same as first segment, but with gear retracted, speed increased by 20%, proceeding to an altitude of 400 feet

Third Segment (departure performance)

Maintaining level altitude, retracting flaps/slats, increasing speed a further 5%, engine power reduced to maximum continuous thrust

Final Segment (departure performance)

Maintaining the configuration at the end of the third segment, climbing to an altitude of 1,500 feet

Airport "Readiness" State

The availability of operational facilities (runways, instrument-approach aids, lighting, fire/rescue services, mechanical/electrical systems, people movers, baggage-handling systems, air bridges) appropriate to the airlines and aircraft using the airport

Aerodrome Certificate

ICAO term requiring all Member States to put in place a system for certifying airports with international commercial service

ICAO Manual on Certification of Aerodromes

Lists the obligations of airport operators and provides a guide on documenting compliance via an approved certification manual

US Airport Certification Requirement

Certification is compulsory for airports used by scheduled and charter air carriers, set out in Part 139 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

Operating Constraints (mainly weather)

Include VFR/IFR conditions and which runways have instrument vs. non-instrument approaches

Runway Visual Range (RVR)

The distance over which a pilot on the runway centerline can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or its centerline

Passenger Terminal Functions

The processing of passengers and baggage, provision for the requirement of a change of movement type, and facilitating a change of mode.

High-Activity Centers

Facilities such as airport terminals that have a high throughput of users.

Terminal Functions Categories

Direct passenger services, airline-related passenger services, governmental activities, non-passenger-related airport authority functions, and airline functions.

Airport-Dominant Management

Where terminal operations are airport-dominant, the airport authority itself provides the staff to run terminal services.

Direct Passenger Services

Terminal operations provided for the convenience of air travelers that are not directly related to the operations of the airlines.

Airline-Related Passenger Services

Operations handled entirely by airlines or their agents, such as reservations, check-in, baggage handling, and CIP facilities.

Flight Dispatch Activities

Flight planning, aircraft weight and balance, flight-crew briefing, and flight watch.

Flight Planning

Determining how long an individual flight will take and how much fuel will be required.

Flight-Crew Briefing

Providing appropriate advice and information to assist the crew in the safe conduct of a flight.

Flight Watch (Flight Control)

Monitoring the progress of individual flights by flight dispatch/flight operations personnel.

Governmental Controls

Customs, immigration, health, and agricultural produce.