Environmental Justice, Laws, and Toxic Metals: Key Concepts and Cases

What is environmental justice?

The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, in environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

What are the goals of environmental justice?

To ensure equal environmental protection and access to the decision-making process that shapes the environment.

Why is environmental justice not universally representative?

It often misses the nuances between equality and equity.

What was the Memphis Sanitation Strike?

A 1968 strike initiated by garbage collectors after two workers were killed by a malfunctioning truck, supported by the NAACP and joined by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

What was the outcome of the Memphis Sanitation Strike?

A deal was reached for better wages and union recognition after Dr. King's assassination intensified the strike.

What happened in Warren County regarding environmental justice?

A trucking company illegally dumped PCB-laden transformer fluid in a primarily black area, leading to protests and becoming a symbol of the civil rights movement.

What is environmental racism?

The disproportionate targeting of minority communities for toxic burdens, resulting in more landfills and toxic industries in those areas.

What was Executive Order 12898?

Signed by President Clinton in 1994, it was the first major federal action on environmental justice in the U.S., addressing the disproportionate burden of pollution on low-income and minority populations.

What is the purpose of the SouthWest Organizing Project (SWOP)?

To empower communities in the Southwest to achieve racial and gender equality and social and economic justice.

What is the Indigenous Environmental Network?

Founded in 1990, it aims to build the capacity of Indigenous communities to protect their sacred sites and develop sustainable communities.

What was the Flint water crisis?

A public health crisis in 2014 when Flint, Michigan's water supply was switched, exposing 20,000 children to lead due to inadequate protective measures.

What does the Safe Drinking Water Act regulate?

It monitors 88 different contaminants in drinking water to ensure safety and quality.

What is the relationship between race and drinking water enforcement?

A recent EPA report found that race strongly correlates with slow and ineffective enforcement of federal drinking water laws.

What is the goal of lead disparity initiatives?

To eliminate disparities in childhood blood lead levels and reduce lead exposure for all people.

What does the Clean Air Act of 1970 regulate?

It regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources and authorizes the EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).

What is the Clean Water Act of 1972?

It establishes the basic structure for regulating pollutants discharged into U.S. waters, originally initiated as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948.

What is the precautionary principle in environmental policy?

The idea that preventative measures should be taken when activities pose a threat to the environment or health.

What does the polluter-pays principle entail?

The principle that a polluter should bear the costs of preventing, controlling, and remediating pollution.

What is the difference between common law and statutory law?

Common law is developed based on judicial rulings, while statutory law is written and passed by the legislature.

What are the four pillars of the National Environmental Policy Act?

Transparency, informed decision-making, public input, and accountability.

What is the significance of the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act?

It established a national framework for protecting the environment and requires government consideration of environmental impacts before federal actions.

What is the role of the EPA in pesticide regulation?

Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), the EPA regulates pesticide distribution, sale, and use.

What is environmental sustainability?

The idea that it is possible to maintain a clean environment and healthy ecosystem while ensuring societal flourishing.

What is the impact of aging water infrastructure on water quality?

Aging and underfunded water infrastructure increases the risk of contamination and affects enforcement of water quality laws.

What is the environmental policy's reactivity?

Most laws and regulations are reactive, changing in response to new leaders, amendments, and court decisions.

What are the health effects associated with PCB exposure?

PCBs can cause reproductive, developmental, immune system issues, and cancer.

What does the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) prohibit?

It prohibits dumping material that would unreasonably degrade or endanger human health or the marine environment.

What is the main purpose of the Endangered Species Act of 1973?

To conserve threatened and endangered plants and animals and their habitats.

What does the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 authorize the EPA to do?

It authorizes the EPA to set minimum standards to protect the quality of drinking water in the US.

What is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 focused on?

It focuses on the control of hazardous waste from generation to disposal, including waste minimization.

What authority does the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) give to the EPA?

It gives the EPA authority to report, record, test, and restrict chemical substances.

What is CERCLA, and what does it provide?

CERCLA, also known as the Superfund Act, provides federal funding to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites.

Why are metals a concern in environmental health?

They are persistent in the environment, cause adverse health effects, and are often found at Superfund sites.

What are the top three hazardous metals listed in the CERCLA National Priority List?

Arsenic, lead, and mercury.

What are the primary exposure routes for toxic metals?

Inhalation, dermal contact, and ingestion.

What is arsenic, and what are its acute effects?

Arsenic is an element that is acutely toxic, causing gastrointestinal issues, nerve damage, and potentially death.

How can arsenic contaminate drinking water?

It can contaminate groundwater and aquifers through natural deposits or industrial processes.

What are the chronic effects of arsenic exposure?

Chronic effects include skin issues, cancer, and diabetes.

What are the historical uses of lead?

Lead was used in tableware, stained glass, batteries, and previously in paint and gasoline.

What are the effects of lead exposure on children?

Lead exposure can lower IQ and cause underperformance in school.

What are the two types of mercury, and where are they commonly found?

Elemental mercury is found in thermometers and dental amalgams; inorganic mercury is found in some cosmetics and batteries.

What is methylmercury, and how does it enter the food chain?

Methylmercury is an organic form of mercury that bioaccumulates in fish, primarily from coal-fired power stations.

What are the neurological effects of methylmercury exposure?

It can impair neurological development and cause brain and nervous system effects.

What incident is associated with mercury pollution in Minamata Bay?

In 1950, mercury contamination from a factory led to severe health issues and deaths among locals who consumed contaminated fish.

What is the main source of mercury pollution from electric power generation?

Coal- and oil-fired electric utility Steam Generating Units (EGUs) are major sources of mercury emissions.

What are the three main types of fossil fuels?

Solid (coal), liquid (oil), and gas (natural gas).

What is the primary method of coal extraction?

Coal is extracted through strip mining for surface deposits and subsurface mining for deeper deposits.

What is the significance of the year 1978 in relation to lead paint?

In 1978, the government banned lead paint for residential use due to health concerns.

What are the renal effects of lead exposure in adults?

Lead exposure can lead to chronic nephropathy and hypertension.

What are the reproductive effects of lead exposure?

Lead exposure can cause miscarriages, reduced sperm count, and abnormal sperm.

What is the role of the EPA in regulating mercury emissions?

The EPA sets emissions standards for mercury and other hazardous air pollutants from electric utility units.

How does energy consumption differ between industrialized and least industrialized nations?

Industrialized nations use more than 50 times more energy than the least industrialized nations.

What is subsurface mining?

A method for extracting deposits deep underground by digging vertical shafts and horizontal tunnels to follow coal seams.

What is mountaintop removal mining?

A mining method that involves blasting away entire mountaintops to extract coal on a large scale, particularly in the Appalachian Mountains.

What is coal?

The most abundant fossil fuel.

What is strip mining?

A method for extracting minerals near the surface by scraping away large amounts of earth.

What is crude oil?

Oil extracted from the ground before it is refined.

What is natural gas?

Gas primarily made up of methane and other volatile hydrocarbons, often found above oil and coal deposits.

What is hydraulic fracturing (fracking)?

A technique that pumps high-pressure chemically treated water into rock to release trapped oil and natural gas.

What are the effects of coal mining?

1. Landscape removal and ecosystem disruption from strip and mountaintop mining. 2. Acid mine drainage from subsurface mining contaminating water.

What is pneumoconiosis?

A lung disease caused by exposure to dust or particulate matter, specifically from coal dust (black lung) or silica (silicosis).

What are the environmental impacts of oil and gas extraction?

1. Drinking water contamination from fracking fluid. 2. Natural resource depletion and potential disasters like oil spills.

What is foreign energy dependence?

Reliance on fossil fuels that makes nations vulnerable to price changes and supply availability.

What is alternative energy?

Energy sources other than fossil fuels, including nuclear and renewable sources.

What are renewable energy sources?

Energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal, and hydropower that do not produce greenhouse gas emissions.

What is nuclear power?

Energy derived from the controlled splitting of uranium atoms (fission).

What are the three stages of nuclear power generation?

1. Front end: mining and fabricating uranium. 2. Middle stage: generating electricity at power plants. 3. Back end: disposing of radioactive waste.

What are the advantages of nuclear power?

Extremely productive, lowest carbon footprint, small land footprint, and job creation.

What are the disadvantages of nuclear power?

High upfront costs, risks at each production stage, and potential for catastrophic failures.

What is passive solar energy?

Design elements that maximize sunlight exposure to reduce energy use.

What is active solar energy?

Capturing solar radiation and converting it into usable energy, such as through photovoltaic cells.

What are photovoltaic (PV) cells?

Solar panels that absorb sunlight and convert it into electricity.

What is concentrated solar power (CSP)?

Using curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver to generate heat for energy.

What are the advantages of solar energy?

Reduces pollution, is an inexhaustible resource, and creates green collar jobs.

What are the disadvantages of solar energy?

High upfront costs, reliance on sunlight, and potential wildlife displacement.

What is wind power?

Energy generated by wind turbines that convert wind energy into electricity.

What are the advantages of wind power?

Reduces pollution, is efficient, and can provide income for farmers leasing land for wind development.

What are the disadvantages of wind power?

Intermittent resource availability, uneven wind distribution, and hazards to wildlife.

What is geothermal energy?

Thermal energy from beneath the Earth's surface, generated by radioactive decay and high pressure.

What are the advantages of geothermal energy?

Reduces pollution and helps resupply groundwater by injecting used steam and water back into the earth.

What is a major disadvantage of geothermal energy?

Water depletion occurs if heated water is used more quickly than the groundwater can recharge.

What are the potential hazards associated with geothermal energy?

Corrosion and pollution hazards due to groundwater containing salts and minerals.

What is hydropower?

One of the oldest and largest renewable energy sources that uses the kinetic energy of flowing river water to generate electricity.

What is the Itaipu Dam?

Located on the Paraná River between Brazil and Paraguay, it is the third largest hydroelectric dam in the world.

What are some ecological impacts of the Itaipu Dam's construction?

Disrupted local ecosystems, displaced ~10,000 families, and resulted in the closing of a national park.

List one advantage of hydropower.

It does not emit air pollution.

What is one disadvantage of hydropower?

Damming rivers can displace and destroy habitats, preventing the natural flooding cycle.

Who revealed the first X-ray photo?

Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895.

What significant contributions did Pierre and Marie Curie make?

Developed the theory of radioactivity and discovered polonium and radium.

What factors govern the amount of radiation exposure?

Time, distance from the source, and the degree of radioactivity.

What is ionizing radiation?

Radiation with enough energy to knock electrons out of atoms, potentially causing tissue damage and cancer.

What are some sources of ionizing radiation?

Medical X-rays, nuclear power generators, and radioactive fallout.

What are acute health effects of radiation exposure?

Skin burns, sterility in males, respiratory failure, cataracts, and radiation sickness.

What is non-ionizing radiation?

Radiation that can move atoms in a molecule but not enough to remove electrons.

What are some sources of non-ionizing radiation?

Radiofrequency radiation from radios and microwaves, and infrared radiation from heat lamps.

What health effects can result from exposure to radiofrequency radiation?

Burns, interference with pacemakers, cataracts, and hyperthermia.

What is the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948?

The first major US law to address water pollution.

What does the Clean Water Act regulate?

Discharge of pollutants into US waters and sets quality standards for surface waters.

What is the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)?

A law that protects the quality of drinking water in the US and establishes minimum standards.

What is a point source of water pollution?

A specific source of pollution that can be identified.