HIST 2220-001 (The United States as a World Power, 1898-1991)

SOUTH AMERICA IN TURMOIL IN THE 19TH CENTURY

-At the end of the Napoleonic wars, Ferdinand VII came to the throne
-A shift in Latin American Colonies
Leading separatists were arrested
-Did not follow the constitution
-Did not compromise
-Militarization

SIMON BOLIVAR

-Was responsible for the independence of Peru, Ecuador,
Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia and Panama
-Was born rich
-European influence
Started his rebellion in 1808
-Battle of Carabobo (1821)

GRAN COLOMBIA (1819-1831)

-Wanted to be completely
independent from outside influences
-Federalism and centralism

NEW SPAIN

-Constitutions
-Mexican empire (1821-1823)

MONROE DOCTRINE

- stated that the western hemisphere was for America to control
- Separate spheres of influence
- "It is a God-given right of America to conquer and occupy all of America"

MEXICAN-AMERICA WAR (1846-1848)

- United States annexed Texas in 1845
- Mexico declared war in 1846
- Captured Mexican president
- USA "bought" New Mexico, Arizona, California
- Napoleon the third invaded Mexico
- America moved significant military forces to the border

PANAMA CANAL

- The United States wanted a US-controlled canal across Central America
- United States encouraged rebellion in Panama
- "Panama Canal Zone"

"BANANA WARS"

- America waged a series of wars, occupations and interventions in Central America and the Caribbean to set up governments and encourage the favourable economic relationships
- Lasted until 1934 with the Good Neighbor Policy

IMPERIALISM AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH CENTURY

- Social Darwinism
- Jingoists
- National destiny

CUBAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

- America would be involved for the last 3 months
- "the key to the Gulf of Mexico, is, though in the hands of Spain, a part of the American commercial system ... If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination"

SINKING OF THE MAINE

- The Battleship was sent there to protect American interests
- The explosion of the ship
- The Americans moved quickly to support the Cubans

PUERTO RICO

- Sent 12 ships
- Back and forth fighting

THE RISE OF COMMUNIST RUSSIA

- The conflict between Russia and the West was being carried out in the days before the First World War ended.
Great Britain, America and Russia were allies for part of the First World war.
- The Russian Revolution and the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
- The Soviet Union by the mid-1920s viewed "International politics as a bipolar World"

THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR

- The Red Army against the White Army.
- The creation of the Soviet Union.
- The Soviet Union and "peace" treaties with its neighbours.

THE SOVIET UNION IN THE 1920S AND 1930S

-The Soviet-Polish War
-The Georgian affair
-The death of Lenin
-Stalin and Trotsky clash
-Stalin's purges

THE GREAT PURGES

- Death of Sergey Kirov
The leadership of the "old communists"
- Leadership of the military
- Intelligentsia
- Mongolia
- Western Émigres
- Nikolai Yezhov
- The death count of the purges

THE GROWTH OF THE SOVIET ECONOMY

- The "five-year plans
- Forced collectivization
- Famines

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN THE 1920S AND 30s

- Women's rights
- The "Roaring" 20's
- Isolationism
- The Great Depression

CAPITALISM AND COMMUNISM

- Economic autarky versus free trade
- State planning versus private enterprise
- Individual liberty versus social justice The elite of both countries felt that the future was theirs.

THE INTERWAR YEARS

- Bolsheviks' challenge to Capitalism
- Non-recognition of the Soviet Union by the United States
- The Polish-Soviet War
- Soviet funding of communist ideals in the West.
- The Great Purge
- Moscow show trials
- Wests' support of the
- White Army
- The League of Nations
- The Spanish Civil War
- The Munich Agreement

THE START OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

- The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
- The growing "friendship" between Nazi
- Germany and the Soviet Union.
- Operation Barbarossa
- Stalin grasps the West's help.

END OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

- A significant effort was made by the West to help the Soviet Union during the war.
- The Soviet Union bore the brunt of the fighting during the war.
- There was a "softening" of rhetoric.
- The Soviet Union and the West had substantial distrust for each other during the war.

GROWING CONCERN WITH ASIA

- President Franklin D. Roosevelt's quarantine speech
- Nine power treaty conference

Evian Conference

32 countries met to discuss the fate of Jewish refugees

USA's stance at Evian Conference

- The general American public was largely unaware
- Child bill to let 20,000 German children obtain immigration Visas
- Kristallnacht (On November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence)
- Slattery report (Proposal to develop Alaska through Jewish immigration)
- Did not change immigration

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

As announced in 1940 by Japan's prime minister, the area extending from Manchuria to the Dutch East Indies in which Japan would expand its influence

JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC

the goal was to force the Americans into a negotiated peace through an impenetrable wall of the navy (failed)

- The Japanese threatened to seize Asian colonies of occupied France and the Netherlands
- FDR cut off trade with Japan
- Japan did not think they could fight the US for more than 2 years
- Spying for over 2 years
- Spent 7 months planning

PEARL HARBOUR

Naval base in Hawaii attacked by Japanese aircraft on December 7, 1941. The sinking of much of the U.S. Pacific Fleet brought the United States into World War II.

DOOLITTLE RAID

Counterattack after Pearl Harbor that bomb Japan, did little but boosted moral

MOBILIZING FOR WAR

Factories produced war materials, rationed other items, and used effective propaganda.

- Congress and FDR created laws and new agencies to promote the mobilization
- The Office of War Information controlled war news and promoted morale at home
- War bonds were used to promote support as well as raise funds (War bonds are debt securities issued by a government to finance military operations and other expenditure in times of war without raising taxes to an unpopular level.)

ECONOMIC CONVERSION

Use of former military facilities and industries for new civilian production.

- The industrial capacity of the United States was the decisive factor in the war.
- Civilian firms were converted to war purposes and American industries were primed for all-out production.
- An unprecedented economic boom pulled the country out of the depression.

SCIENCE AT WAR

- Aviation
- Medicine
- Manhattan Project

American Economy in WWII

The American Economy was compared to a gigantic boiler. People believed that giving the industry incentives to produce goods is the best way to rapidly mobilize the economy. The fall of 1941, already prepared the economy for war, but the economy was still only partially mobilized.

Technology and Military power

- At the beginning of the war, German forces were regarded as the most modern in the world.
- The Allies quickly grasped the use of effective mechanized forces.
- German and Japanese forces began to stagnate.
- They began to believe in "Myth"
- German modernization was concentrated on a small portion of the army

America's Technology

- In the 1930s the American army only had one mechanized brigade.
- Did not split up their forces like the Germans did.
- Had a huge pool of resources to draw from.
- Huge level of standardization and serviceability.
- During 1944 the
- Americans produced 600,000 trucks.
- The Americans overestimated the might of the Luftwaffe.
- The Americans developed a sophisticated system of air-ground cooperation that could cope with everything except poor weather.
- It is widely accepted that man for man, German forces were generally more skilled than the enemy, east or west.
- De-modernization however cost Germany.

A war runs on oil

- The Allies controlled over 90% of the oil.
- Japanese attacked Britain and the USA for resources.
- Axis forces in both the eastern theatre and African theatre were driving for oil.
- Soviets needed a huge amount of oil.
- Germany had figured out how to make synthetic oil.
One problem the Axis had not thought of before the war was how to transport oil.
- The strategy for the Soviet Union was simple: to expel German troops from its territory

TUNISIAN CAMPAIGN

- Operation Torch compromise between USA, Soviet Union, and Great Britain.
- Preliminary contact with Vichy French.
- Three landings carried out on November 8th, with French forces contesting them.
- Vichy France and its forces occupied due to senior French officers working with Allies.
- Allied forces held East and West Africa.
- Germans launched battles of Sidi Bou Zid in January, attacked French forces near Faid.
- American counterattacks.

BATTLE OF KASSERINE PASS

- Rommel launched a successful attack in late February.
- The wrong lessons were learned from the defeat.
American forces reorganized and headed towards Gabes.
- The German forces had been reinforced, but their positions were untenable.
- By mid-April, the Allies had an effective supply line, and American troops and commanders were hardened.
- The Americans planned to attack Bizerte, while the British would attack north from Enfidaville.

CASABLANCA CONFERENCE

A wartime conference held at Casablanca, Morocco that was attended by de Gaulle, Churchill, and FDR. The Allies demanded the unconditional surrender of the axis, agreed to aid the Soviets, agreed on the invasion Italy, and the joint leadership of the Free French by De Gaulle and Giraud.

ALLIES INVADE ITALY

- Allies' material superiority was cautioned by respect for German tactical prowess.
- Allied high command was working well.
- To note about the Italian mafia

OPERATION HUSKY

Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy; fighting continues on Italian peninsula for while

OPERATION AVALANCHE (SALERNO)

- 3-16th of September
- Landing was flawed
- Equal strength
- Both sides could claim a sort of victory
- The Americans are fighting a much more skilled german army

GERMAN DEFENSIVE LINES IN ITALY

- Winter lines (Gustov line)
- Battle of Ortona
- Four battles of Monte Cassino (17th January to 18th May)
- Monte Cassino looks over the whole valley almost aerial view of the enemy
- The battle was not easy (Message to the American public whether or not to keep fighting)

OPERATION SHINGLE (ANZIO BEACHHEAD)

This was the second plan of invasion in the Italian Campaign. It was for Italian Mainland. The American's wanted to cut off the axis retreat by cutting in front of them. But this failed.

PROBLEMS AGREEING ON STRATEGY

- Americans frustrated by British "Flippancy"
- Taking back Greek islands.
- Need of good ports

TEHRAN CONFERENCE

First major meeting between the Big Three (United States, Britain, Russia) at which they planned the 1944 assault on France and agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupation after the war

D-Day Landings

- By the beginning of 1944, everyone knew the Anglo- - American invasion of north-western Europe was coming
- Elaborate and visible preparations on both sides of the channel were being developed
- Germans had placed 2.5 million mines, concrete gun emplacements, Anti-tank beach obstacles
- 58 infantry divisions (varied in ability) as well as a Panzer Corps ( best fighting troops arguably in the world)

SUPREME HEADQUARTERS ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (SHAEF)

- Was created in December of 1943
- Would organize and control the landings
- Planned for May 1st
- Over a million troops
- 5 beaches would be attacked
- Dwight D. Eisenhower

BOMBING OF NORMANDY

- Began at midnight with more than 2,200 planes
- Coastal bombing largely ineffective
- Bombing pushed back because of bad weather
- Omaha & Normandy beaches (America)

AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

- Use of gliders and paratroopers
- Secure bridges and flanks
- Help with the resistance

THE BEACHES

- Utah beach was by far the most challenging
- Huge numbers on the beach
- Largest seaborne invasion in History
- 160,000 Allied troops
- 10,000 casualties
- Deception was effective
- Air supremacy
- Infrastructure destroyed
- German response
- Military defence pact so this doesn't happen again.

Falaise Pocket

This was a pocket created by the Allies in August 1944 when they surrounded about 95,000 German soldiers. About 35,000 Germans soldiers escaped, another 10,000 were killed, and 50,000 were captured.

Operation Market Garden

Allies paratroopers attempt a daring plan from september 17-25 1944 to size strategic bridges and then rush grounds forces up and across them. In the end the paratroopers only ended up capturing 1 out of 5 bridges and were forced to retreat

Battle of the Bulge

December, 1944-January, 1945 - After recapturing France, the Allied advance became stalled along the German border. In the winter of 1944, Germany staged a massive counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg which pushed a 30 mile "bulge" into the Allied lines. The Allies stopped the German advance and threw them back across the Rhine with heavy losses.

Battle of Midway

U.S. naval victory over the Japanese fleet in June 1942, in which the Japanese lost four of their best aircraft carriers. It marked a turning point in World War II.

The American Offensive

- The Americans realized that China could not be used as a launching base for attacking Japan.
- The Aleutian Islands would also not be a viable strategy.
- This left the American forces with two options:
1. Capturing the Solomon Islands and then island hopping up to the Philippines.
2. Using combined arms against central Pacific islands and attack Japan from
bases in the Marshall, Caroline, and Marians islands.
- The Japanese were now thrown largely on the defensive and gave up plans to attack

Guadalcanal Campaign

This military campaign marked the transition by the Allies to offensive operations in the Pacific theater by combining ground, air, and sea forces in an assault on Japanese positions in the Solomon Islands.

Road to Japan

- In the summer of 1943, the American Marines were still fighting through the Solomon Islands.
- After defeating the Japanese on the Kokoda
- Track in January of 1943, the United States
- Army began pushing further through New Guinea and the surrounding Islands.

Kamikaze

Japanese suicide pilots who loaded their planes with explosives and crashed them into American ships.

Battle of Leyte Gulf

1944 World War II naval battle between the United States and Japan. Largest naval engagement in history. Japanese navy was defeated.

The Philippines Campaign:

Campaign to defeat and expel the Imperial Japanese forces occupying the Philippines, during World War II.

Attack on Iwo Jima

The bombing of Japans mainland was inefficient, so they decided to attack Iwo Jima which was a small volcanic island off the coast of Japan. Marines invaded and took the Island from Japan. This was the bloodiest battle in marine corps.

Invasion of Japan

On April 1st over 1,200 ships carrying more than 180,000 soldiers converged on the Japanese island of Okinawa

Atomic bomb

bomb dropped by an American bomber on Hiroshima and Nagasaki destroying both cities

EUROPE IN 1945

-Continent of wreckage and confusion
-Refugees returned home
-Housing now scarce, food in short supply
-Fear in U.S. that these conditions would strengthen support for communism

Potsdam Conference

The final wartime meeting of the leaders of the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union was held at Potsdamn, outside Berlin, in July, 1945. Truman, Churchill, and Stalin discussed the future of Europe but their failure to reach meaningful agreements soon led to the onset of the Cold War.

UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration)

-Staff of 12,0000
- Funding of $3.7 billion USA $2.7 billion, Britain $625, Canada $139
- By 1947 UNRRA was running nearly 800 resettlement camps, housing 7 million people

Iron Curtain

Winston Churchill's term for the Cold War division between the Soviet-dominated East and the U.S.-dominated West.

United Nations

International organization founded in 1945 to promote world peace and cooperation. It replaced the League of Nations.

THE USA IN THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH OF THE WAR

- Economic and Military powerhouse
- Worried about sinking into another depression
- Dissuade potential adversaries
- Hoped for a new world based on peaceful principles

UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND REHABILITATION ADMINISTRATION

- It was subject to the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Forces
- It provided health and welfare assistance
- Helped reunite families
- Provided vocational training and entertainment
- Ran out of funds in 1947

Nuremburg Trials (1945)

Series of trials in which former Nazi leaders were charged with crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, and war crimes

Operation Paperclip

The program set up by the American government during the end of World War II to obtain technological information and recruit scientists from Germany including those who had worked with the Nazi Party.

Marshall Plan (1947)

A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of Europe. This plan offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe on condition they wouldn't go communist. Helped contain communism in Europe and helped our economy as Europe bought from US businesses to rebuild.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

A 1949 defense alliance initiated by the US, Canada, and 10 Western European nations

Sinews of Peace Speech

1946: Winston Churchill declares his 'Iron Curtain' idea regarding the division of Europe

Red Army

the regular army of the former Soviet Union

White Army

any of the armies that opposed the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War of 1918-21.

Puerto Rico (Spanish American War)

- blockade and invasion
- Sent 12 ships
- Back and forth fighting

Guam, Puerto Rico, Philippines

Territories the U.S. gained through Spanish-American War

Guam (Spanish-American War)

became territories of the United States as part of the terms of the Treaty of Paris that officially ended the Spanish-American War of 1898

Philippine War 1898-1902

Filipino rebels employed guerilla warfare in a bloody but unsuccessful effort to expel the American "liberators"

The Mexican revolution

(1910-1920 CE) Fought over a period of almost 10 years form 1910; resulted in ouster of Porfirio Diaz from power; opposition forces led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.

Paris Peace Conference

1919, meeting of the Allies at the end of WWI, concluded with Treaty of Versailles

The treaty of versaille

(WW) 1918, , Created by the leaders victorious allies Nations: France, Britain, US, and signed by Germany to help stop WWI. The treaty 1)stripped Germany of all Army, Navy, Airforce. 2) Germany had to rapair war damages(33 billion) 3) Germany had to acknowledge guilt for causing WWI 4) Germany could not manefacture any weapons.

Spanish-American War

In 1898, a conflict between the United States and Spain, in which the U.S. supported the Cubans' fight for independence