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Anatomy

Study of structure

Subdivisions of anatomy

Gross/macroscopic

Microscopic

Developmental

Physiology

Study of the function of the body

Integumentary system

Forms external body covering, projects deeper tissues from injury, synthesizes vitamin d, houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors and sweat and oil glands

Skeletal system

Bones and joints. Protects and supports body organs, provides a framework the muscles use to case movement, blood cells formed within bones, bones store minerals. Muscles cannot function without.

Muscular system

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, produces heat.

Nervous system

Fast acting control system of the body. Responds to internal an external changes - activates appropriate muscles and glands

Endocrine system

Slower acting control system, glands secrete hormones, regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use.

Cardiovascular system

Heart and blood vessels. Heart pumps blood, blood vessels transport blood, blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, etc.

Lymphatic system

Reliant on smooth muscle, picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood, disposes of debris in lymphatic stream, houses white blood cells involved in immunity, mounts attack against foreign substances

Respiratory system

keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen, removes carbon dioxide

Digestive system

breaks down food into absorb-able units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Urinary system

Eliminate nitrogenous waste from the body, regulates water balance, regulates electrolytes, regulates acid base balance of the food

Survival needs of the body

Nutrients

Oxygen

Water

Normal body temp

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

NOWNA

No one wants nasty apples

Homeostatis

Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous change in environment. Not static. Body constantly doing something to maintain this.

Negative feedback

Most feedback in the body is this. Response reduces or shuts of original stimulus - variable changes in opposite direction of initial change.

EX Regulation of blood insulin by glucose

Positive feedback

Response enhances or exaggerate original stimulus.

EX Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

Anatomical postion

body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, in males the penis is erect.

Anterior

Toward the front of the body

Posterior

Toward the back of the body

Superior

Towards the head

Inferior

Towards the feet

Deep

More internal

Superficial

Closer to the surface

Medial

Towards the midline

Lateral

Away from the midline

Intermediate

Between a more medial and more lateral structure

Proximal

Closer to the trunk of the body

Distal

Farther from the trunk of the body

Axial

Head, neck, trunk

Appendicular

Limbs

Cephalic region

head/cranial

Cervical region

neck

Thoracic region

Upper/middle back

Abdominal region

Pelvic region

Pubic region

Upper limb region

Manus region

Lower limb region

Pedal region

Dorsal region

Situs inversus

Organs flip flopped

Body plane

Flat surface along which body or structure may be cut for anatomical study

Sections

Cuts or sections made along a body plane

Sagittal pane

divides body into left and right vertically

Midsagittal plane (median)

on the midline of the body

Parasagittal plane

not on midline of body

Frontal plane

Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts

Transverse plane

divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts. a cross section

Oblique section

Results of cuts at an angle other than 90 degrees to vertical plane

Dorsal body cavity

Protects nervous system. Has cranial an vertebral cavities.

Ventral body cavitiy

Houses the internal organs, or viscera. Has thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Thoracic cavity

Two pleural cavities, one surrounding each lung. Mediastinum which contains pericardial cavity which encloses heart.

Abdominopelvic cavitiy

Abdominal cavity, which contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver. Also has the pelvic cavity, contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and the rectum.

Pericardium

Serous membrane that covers heart and keeps it from chaffing.

Pleurae

Serous membrane that covers lungs and keeps them from chaffing.

Peritoneum

Serous membrane that covers the abdominopelvic cavity, except the kidneys etc, that helps food movement.

Abdominopelvic quadrants

Tissues

groups of cells similar in structure that preform common or related function

Histology

study of tissues

Epithelial tissue

Covers and forms boundaries. Two types, covering and lining and glandular.

Connective tissue

Supports. Most abundant and widely distributed of primary tissues.

Muscle tissue

Produces movement. Highly vascularized. Responsible for most classes of movement. Three sub classes - skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue.

Nerve tissue

Controls. Main component of nervous system - brain, spinal chord, nerves. Regulates and controls body functions.

Epithelial tissue functions

Protection

Absorption

Filtration

Excretion

Secretion

Sensory reception

PAFESS

Pale angles free earthly social standards

Five characteristics of epithelial tisse

Polarity

Specialized contacts

Supported by connective tissues

Avascular, but innervated

Can regenerate

Polarity

Has a top and a bottom. In epithelial, apical surface exposed to exterior or cavity. Basal surface, lower and attached. Both surfaces differ in structure and function.

Classification of epithelia

All have two names. One indicates shape of cells -squamous, cuboidal, columnar. One indicates number of cell layers. Simple - 1 cell layer. Stratified - two or more layers.

Simple epithelia

Absorbsion

Secretion

Filtration

Stratified epithelial tissue

Two or more cell layers. Regenerate from below, more durable that simple. Protection is main role.

Glandular epithelia

Gland

one of more cells that makes and secretes and aqueous fluid called a secretion.

Exocrine

Externally secreting gland

Endocrine

Internally secreting gland

Merocrine

most, secrete products by exocytosis as prodced

Holocrine

accumulate products within then rupture

Apocrine

Accumulates products within but only apex ruptures.

Major functions of connective tissue

Binding and support, protecting (fat storage), insulating, storing reserve fuel, transporting substances (blood)

Characteristics of connective tissue

Mesenchyme (embryonic tissue) as their common tissue of origin. Varying degrees of vascularity. Extracellular matrix - connective tissue not composed of mainly cells. Largely a nonliving extracellular matrix separates the cells.

Ground substance

Unstructured material that fills space between cells. Components of this are interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans.

Proteoglycans

Protein core and large polysaccharides (chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid). Traps water in varying amounts, affecting viscosity of ground substance

Connective tissue fibers

Collagen -strongest and most abundant

Elastic - networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch and recoil

Reticular- short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers. Branch, forming networks that offer more give.

Fat cells

store nutrients

white blood cells

neutrophilis, eosinophilis, lymphocytes. tissues that respond to injury

Mast cells

initiate local inflammatory response against foreign microorganisms they detect

Macrophages

Phagocytic cells that eat dead cells, microorganisms; function in immune system.

Classes of connective tissue

connective tissue proper

cartilage

bone

blood

Connective tissue proper

Loose connective tissue - areolar, adipose, reticular

Dense connective - dense regular, dense irregular, elastic

Areolar connective tissue

Loose. Support and bind other tissues. Most widely spread, provide reservoir of water and salts, defend against infection, store nutrients as fat, fibroblasts.

Adipose connective tissue

Loose. White fat -Similar to areolar but more nutrient storage. Cell is adipocyte -stores nutrients. Shock absorption, insulation, energy storage.

Brown fat - use lipid fuels to head bloodstream not to produce ATP (baby's back)

Reticular connective tissue

Loose. resembles areolar but fibers are reticular. Supports free blood in lymph nodes, the sleep, and bone marrow.

Dense regular connective tissue

Closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running parallel to direction of pull. Few cells. Poorly vascularized.

Dense irregular connective tissue

Same elements but bundles of collagen thicken and irregularly arranged. Resists tension from many directions - dermis, fibrous joint capsules, fibrous coverings of some organs.

Elastic connective tissue

Dense. Some ligaments very elastic, those connecting the adjacent vertebrae. Many of larger arteries have in walls.

Cartilage

Chondroblasts and chondrocytes. Tough yet flexible. Lacks nerve fibers. Up to 80% water. Three types.

Hyaline cartilage

Elastic cartilage

Fibrocartilage