Learning – Discovering Psychology (Hockenbury & Nolan, 10th ed.)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Chapter 5, “Learning,” including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Learning

A relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Conditioning

The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally produces a response until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist (1849–1936) who discovered and systematically studied classical conditioning using dogs.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unlearned, reflexive reaction elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with a UCS, acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned, reflexive reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to similar stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned ability to respond to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli.

Timing (in CC)

Conditioning is most effective when the CS is presented immediately before the UCS.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Procedure in which a CS from one learning trial functions as a UCS in a new trial, creating a second CS.

Extinction (Classical)

Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time interval without exposure to the CS.

Charles Henry Turner

First African American psychologist; conducted pioneering research on animal learning despite academic barriers.

Behaviorism

School of psychology founded by John Watson that emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavior.

John Watson

Behaviorist who redefined psychology as the study of behavior and conducted the "Little Albert" experiment.

Little Albert Experiment

Watson & Rayner’s study demonstrating conditioned emotional reactions (fear of a white rat).

Mary Cover Jones

Psychologist who used classical conditioning techniques to eliminate a child’s fear—an early example of behavior therapy.

Classical Conditioning in Advertising

Practice of pairing emotion-evoking images with neutral products to create positive associations.

Contemporary View (CC)

Acknowledges roles for both cognitive processing and evolutionary predispositions in classical conditioning.

Robert Rescorla

Demonstrated that animals actively process information; the CS must reliably predict the UCS.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

Learning to avoid a flavor after a single pairing with illness; discovered by John Garcia.

Biological Preparedness

Innate predisposition to form certain associations more easily than others because of evolutionary history.

Martin Seligman (Phobias)

Proposed humans are evolutionarily prepared to fear stimuli that were once dangerous to ancestors.

Operant Conditioning

Learning of active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences.

Edward Thorndike

Psychologist who studied animal problem solving and formulated the Law of Effect.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are strengthened; those followed by discomfort are weakened.

B. F. Skinner

Behaviorist who expanded operant conditioning; invented the Skinner box and coined the term operant.

Operant

Any active behavior that operates on the environment to generate consequences.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated.

Discriminative Stimulus

A cue indicating that a particular response is likely to be reinforced.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthening a response by presenting a pleasant stimulus after the behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthening a response by removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus after the behavior.

Primary Reinforcer

Stimulus that is naturally reinforcing because it satisfies a biological need (e.g., food, water).

Secondary Reinforcer

Stimulus that gains reinforcing value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, awards).

Punishment

Process that decreases the future occurrence of a behavior through an aversive consequence.

Positive Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus after the response.

Negative Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus after the response.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is displayed.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing every occurrence of a desired response.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only some of the time; leads to greater resistance to extinction.

Partial Reinforcement Effect

Greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement compared with continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR)

Reinforcement given after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule (VR)

Reinforcement given after an unpredictable number of responses, centered around an average.

Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI)

Reinforcement given for the first response after a fixed time period has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)

Reinforcement given for the first response after varying time intervals, centered around an average.

Behavior Modification

Application of operant conditioning principles to change maladaptive behaviors.

Cognitive View (Operant)

Modern perspective recognizing that expectations, mental maps, and other cognitive processes influence operant learning.

Edward Tolman

Demonstrated latent learning and cognitive maps in rats navigating mazes.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not demonstrated until there is incentive to perform.

Cognitive Map

Mental representation of the layout of an environment.

Learned Helplessness

Passive behavior produced by exposure to inescapable, uncontrollable aversive events; studied by Seligman.

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for animal’s innate behaviors to interfere with conditioned responses, limiting operant learning.

Comparison: Classical vs. Operant

Classical conditions reflexive responses via stimulus pairing; operant conditions voluntary behaviors via consequences.

Learning Styles Myth

Popular but unsupported idea that matching instruction to individual style improves learning.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating the actions of others.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist who pioneered observational learning research, including the Bobo doll experiments.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura’s study showing children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adult models.

Modeling

Process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Factors Increasing Imitation

Rewarded models, warm/nurturing models, similarity to observer, high status, and ambiguous tasks boost imitation.

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire when performing or observing a motor act; basis for imitation and empathy.

Media & Observational Learning

Television and other media can shape behaviors by portraying modeled actions and consequences.

Media Violence Debate

Ongoing research into whether exposure to violent media causes aggressive behavior.