Inequality in Irish society

How is inequality generated? (4 ways)

- economic (resources - unequal distribution)

- cultural (respect - lack of understanding/recognition)

- political (representational)

- affective (relational - lack of love & care)

What are the key pieces of Irish legislation about inequality? & what did they do?

Employment Equality Acts 1998-2015

Equal Status Acts 2000-2015

-> outlawed discrimination in various ways eg. employment, advertising etc.

What are the "nine grounds of discrimination" according to IHREC?

gender

civil status

family status

sexual orientation

religion

age

disability

race

membership of travelling community

What are the two perspectives on inequality?

1) equality of condition - people should be equally enabled/empowered (ie equal outcomes)

2) equality of opportunity - inequalities in people's condition should be fair (ie no one should live in poverty)

What are some challenges in addressing inequality? (4)

- some people benefit from inequality

- inequalities grow (often faster than measures to address them)

- limited real attention

- limited interest

What are 2 ways to collect information on income?

1) individual level - tax (revenue) & social security records

2) household level - surveys (CSO)

What is meant by the term 'household'?

the income receiving unit

What are problems related to the way we collect information about income? (4)

- reliability of data

- representativeness of data

- response rates

- gaps in income data

What are the three types of income?

1) direct (market) income - earnings (all types of earnings - salaries, profits, pensions etc.)

2) gross income - total (direct + welfare payments = gross)

3) disposable income - live off (gross - income taxes = disposable)

What is an 'equivalence scale' used for?

to attribute household income to individual members

What is the equivalence scale used in Ireland?

first adult = 1

each subsequent adult = 0.66

each child = 0.33

What are the three measures of income distribution?

1) entire distribution

2) decile distribution

3) summary measures

explain 'entire distribution'

- is an observation rather than a measure

- line up households/individuals from lowest income to highest

- can find mean and median

explain 'decile distribution'

population divided into 10 10% groups and examined

explain 'summary measures' & the 2 key approaches

summarise the distribution into a number:

1) concentration measure - most common = income quintile ratio

2) Gini coefficient - runs from 0 (perfect equality) to 100 (all income to one person) (higher number = more inequality)

What does low pay mean?

earning less than ⅔ rds of median hourly earnings

Who are the 'low paid'?

60 % women

concentrated in under 40s

60% in 3 sectors - wholesale/retail, accommodation/food, health & social work

What are possible responses to high pay? (3)

1) transparency - requirement to publish pay differentials

2) pay caps

3) special income tax rates

What are the 2 concepts of poverty?

absolute poverty & relative poverty

What is 'absolute' poverty?

= living without the essentials of life (ie a state of deprivation)

normally measured using an income proxy (ie need x a week to afford basics, below this is living in poverty)

examples of absolute poverty

1) USA poverty line - updated annually => cost of a minimum food diet x3 to cover other expenses

2) World Bank & UN - Global poverty line => $2.15/day (648m people below this)

What is 'relative' poverty?

poverty relative to the living standards in a given society - differs from place to place

normally taken to be a % of income, below which is poverty line

EU approach - 60% of median income

Poverty in Ireland - what is the weekly poverty line & how many people live below it?

€290.45 weekly poverty line

11.6% of people (2021) live below it

What is meant by 'hidden' poverty?

poverty measures based on household data & assumption that all are egalitarian units (ie all resources shared equally)

not always the case - some may be receipt of less than others (eg. parents prioritise kids over themselves)

What is meant by 'invisible' poverty?

poverty of those who don't live in households eg. homeless, asylum seekers, prisoners

What is the argument for deprivation?

that it is a better insight into poverty as income is only an indirect measure & there are other non-monetary indicators that should be taken into account (eg. living standards etc.)

Who/what decides what is essential?

experts

consensual approach

budget standards approach

Deprivation in Ireland - what is it based on & what is it's measure?

based on household consumption, possession data & expert opinion

'deprivation rate' - unable to afford 2+ items from list

What is meant by consistent poverty?

deprivation and poverty combined

Why is wealth at the core of many inequalities?

- fuels and perpetuates societal divides

- gaps grow over time and generations

- allows power & influence

Wealth in Ireland (2020) - what was mean & median net wealth, main assets and main debt?

mean net wealth = €353,600

median net wealth = €193,100

main assets = residence, land, voluntary pension savings

main debts = mortgages

Who holds the wealth across: age groups, household types & tenure staus?

age groups - (strong life cycle pattern) young don't have much, older have more, elderly have less (using pension)

household types: older adults w no kids have most, single parents w young kids have least

tenure status: owner-occupied over rented

What is the trend of wealth in Ireland?

net wealth growing over time

What are the two views about inequality in education?

1) distributive justice view (outcomes) - who is educated & to what level is key, equality of outcomes

2) procedural justice view (process) - manner in which education is delivered is important (respect and recognition of cultures etc.)

Main points of educational inequality in Ireland (3)

- intergenerational effects - low education among parents transferring on

- NEETS (young people not in education, employment or training) - 11.4% in Ireland

- adult literacy

Why are educational inequalities so pervasive? (2)

1) educational attainment -> highly resource-dependent (getting into school)

2) economic inequalities translate directly into education inequalities

What do 'gender' and 'sex' mean?

gender = our socially defined roles, identities and relationships

sex = a biological condition

Gender inequalities in education

- women score higher in LC exams

- in 3rd level, women are over half of all graduates

- in both 2nd and 3rd level there is gendered study selection

Gender inequalities in employment

- men more likely to be in labour force

- employment rates: m=68%, f=56%

- men worked longer in paid employment per week

gender inequalities in health

- women have a longer life expectancy

- men more likely to die young (25-24 yrs)

(male road accident rate = x2 female) (male suicide rate = x4 female)

gender inequalities in care

- international pattern

- 98% of those caring are women

gender inequalities in decision making (politics)

- women underrepresented

- Feb 2020 Dáil = 22.5% women

What is the EU Gender Equality Index?

an index to track performance and change across a number of areas:

work, money, power, time etc.

can compare EU countries

(Ireland (improving) at 74.3/100)

What is meant by health inequalities?

differences in health status or the distribution of health determinants between different population groups

What do health inequalities imply? (2)

1) differences in outcomes - deprivation & life expectancy etc.

2) differences in access - mental health, waiting lists etc.

What is the structure of Ireland's health system?

two tier system -> public (funded by taxpayer) & private (both taxpayer + insurance etc.)

favours those who can afford to pay

What is meant by a 'living wage'?

= an hourly wage rate that will provide an employee working full-time to achieve an agreed acceptable minimum standard of living

What does a living wage do?

it creates an income floor, below which => cutting back on essentials, above which => some discretionary income

What are the two approaches for a living wage in Ireland?

1) the original living wage

2) governments living wage

Explain the 'original living wage'

- grew from research on minimum essential living standards

- Irish figure based on living costs for a single adult, working 39 hours a week (FT)

- as figure is driven by living costs, it can fall/rise

Explain the Government's living wage

- adopted in 2022 for implementation 2023-2026

- set at 60% for median hourly earnings

- gradual increase in MW until LW is new floor wage (2023: MW: €11.30; LW: €13.10)

What are some impacts of the living wage on: individuals, employers & the state?

individuals: higher pay & security

employers: higher costs, lower staff turnover & higher productivity/retention

the state: more tax & less low pay supports (win win)

what are some challenges of the living wage?

- single individual approach (families have more costs)

- regional cost differences

- housing costs etc

What is an 'attitude'?

an everyday judgement, a normative view on a specific matter; often an evaluation rather than a descriptive statement of fact

What 3 elements comprise an attitude?

cognitive - information

emotional - desire

behavioural - practice

What are the definitions of equity, equality, need & entitlement according to ESS (European Social Survey)?

equity = hard working people earn more

equality = income and wealth are equally distributed

need = society takes care of those who are poor and in need regardless of what they give back to society

entitlement = families w high social status enjoy privileges

Give some examples of structural changes to make to deal with inequality

- adequate income and earnings

- adequate taxation and welfare

- adequate public services

- addressing income and wealth divides etc.