Tyler Cox Final exam Study guide Bio 102

Where does digestion start?

the mouth

What are the three phases of digestion?

the cephalic phase, the gastric phase, and the intestinal phase (intestinal controls gastric emptying - trick question)

What are the enzymes secreted by the mouth to help?

salivary amylase (saliva is in mouth)

What is a bolus

a nasty gross ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing

How does the food enter the stomach? Down which tract? How does food get from the mouth to the stomach (what is happening?)

through the esophagus . it contracts as it moves food into the stomach .

What macromolecule is digested in the stomach? Which enzyme does this?

protein is the macromolecule, pepsin is the enzyme that does it. pepsin digest protein.

Where does most fat get absorbed?

the TINY BABY LITTLE BOY small intestine

What is chyme ?

the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.

What does the small intestine have that increases surface area?

finger like projections called villi do da job

What are the major types of macromolecules and what helps them to be digested?

carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids; enzymes break them down to help digest

What are some types of nervous systems?

Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System, Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

What are the two cell types found in the nervous system? what is the overall function of each type?

neurons (Receive and transmit electrical impulses) and glial cells (Do not directly transmit electrical signals but play crucial support roles.)

Describe the main function of the nervous system

to receive sensory information from the body, process it in the brain, and then send out motor commands to initiate responses

what type of nervous system do we have?

parasympathetic nervous system

Describe meninges and where are they found

three layers of protective membranes that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord - they are found directly within the skull and spinal column

What is the purpose of the spinal cord?

send motor commands from the brain to the body, send sensory information from the body to the brain, and coordinate reflexes.

What are the two divisions of the nervous system?

the central nervous system (CNS), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

what does the central nervous system amd peripheral nervous system do?

CNS - controls voluntary muscle movement and sensations.

PNS - controls voluntary and involuntary movements

What happens in the synaptic gap/cleft? What causes this?

Neurons talk to each other across synapses.

The rise in Ca2+ concentration causes it

what is resting membrane potential? What are the major channel(s) that helps manage this?

electrical potential difference across a cell membrane when it is not actively sending signals

potassium leak channel

What is the difference between a myelinated and unmyelinated axon?

myelinated axons transmit signals much faster than unmyelinated axon

How do we sense touch?

through specialized nerve endings in our skin called "mechanoreceptors" which detect physical contact and send electrical signals along sensory neurons to the brain

Which part in the brain is known as the relay center that takes signals to its appropriate processing centers of the brain?

thalamus

Where are the taste receptors found?

within taste bugs on the tongue

What are the three tiny bones in your ears that helps conduct sound?

malleus, incus, and stapes

How does balance work?

uses sensory input from the eyes, inner ear, and other parts of the body to help you stay upright and move smoothly

Where are rods and cones found? and what are their functions?

they are located in the retina

Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels, while cones are active at higher light levels and enable us to see color

What is the function of the cornea? The iris? The retina?

Cornea - front part of eye that bends light rays to focus them onto the retina.

Iris - colored part of the eye that surrounds the pupil, controlling its size to regulate the amount of light entering the eye

Retina - light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye where light is converted into electrical signals that are sent to the brain for visual perception

What are secreted by this system? What is their purpose?

secretes hormones ; Hormones act as signals to control various bodily processes like growth, metabolism, reproduction, blood sugar levels, and mood

What are the three major classifications of hormones ?

lipid-derived (steroid) hormones, amino acid-derived hormones, and peptide hormones

Where do hormones act?

through the bloodstream to tissues and organs in the body

What are key differences between nervous system and endocrine system? Why dowe need both?

the nervous system uses electrical impulses to send messages through neurons while endocrine glands use hormones to send messages to the target cells through the bloodstream.

we need both systems because they work together to maintain homeostasis

What are the major types and systems of hormones?

Protein hormones, steroid hormones, amine hormones

what is the major function of the musculoskeletal system? Which one do we have?

provide the body with structure, support, and the ability to move

endoskeleton

What are bones made of?

protein, collagen, and minerals, especially calcium

What are the component of the matrix and what are the cells that helps maintaining it?

the component are collagen, elastin, fibronectin, proteoglycans, and laminin

fibroblasts maintain it

What are found in a skeletal muscle cell?

myofibrils

What is the basic units of muscle cells and what is it compose of?

a sarcomere - composed of two main protein filaments—actin and myosin

Describe the pathway of air.

air travels down your pharynx (back of your throat), passes through your larynx (voice box) and into your trachea (windpipe)
trachea is divided into two air passages called bronchial tubes. One bronchial tube leads to your left lung, the other to your right lung.

How does it enter your lung?

air travels down your pharynx (back of your throat), passes through your larynx (voice box) and into your trachea (windpipe)

What is the name of the molecule that carries oxygen?

Hemoglobin

Fick's law of diffusion - what does it tell us?

the rate at which a substance moves through a medium (like a liquid or gas) is directly proportional to the concentration gradient
a steeper concentration gradient, larger surface area, and shorter distance will increase the rate of diffusion, while a smaller concentration gradient, smaller surface area, and larger distance will decrease the rate of diffusion

What increases and decreases rate?

the rate at which a substance moves through a medium (like a liquid or gas) is directly proportional to the concentration gradient

What are the two categories of lung diseases?

obstructive and restrictive

which type of circalatory system do we have?

closed circulatory system

which type of circulation do we have?

humans have both pulmonary and systemic circulation

Which vessel carries oxygenated blood away from heart?

Arteries (aorta)

Which vessel carries deoxygenated blood into the heart

veins (superior and inferior vena cava)

What is the purpose of lymphatic system?

keeps body fluid levels in balance and defends the body against infections

How many chambers do hearts have?

four chambers

Define blood pressure

the force of blood pushing against the walls of your arteries

What happens during systole?

heart contracts, blood is effectively pumped throughout body

What is systolic blood pressure?

the pressure in your arteries when your heart contracts and pumps blood out

What happens during diastolic?

the heart muscle relaxes, allowing the chambers to fill with blood (basically prepares the heart for next contraction)

What is diastolic blood pressure?

the bottom number in a blood pressure reading, representing the pressure in your arteries when your heart relaxes between beats

What is the main regulator of blood volume?

the kidney

What is plasma?

the liquid part of blood that makes up about 55% of its volume

What are the major cells of the immune system?

lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages

what are antigens?

substances that trigger the body's immune system to produce antibodies and launch an attack

What are antibodies?

proteins that help the body's immune system fight off harmful substances

What is the purpose of B and T cells?

B cells are responsible for producing antibodies to fight infection. while T cells attack infected cells

What are the two divisions of the immune system?

innate immunity and adaptive immunity
innate is the first line, adaptive is the second line

Which ones are your first line of defense? Second line?

Thorns and metabolites

What are the two divisions of the immune system?
Which ones are your first line of defense? Second line?

innate is the first line, adaptive is the second line