Research methods

Independent Variable (IV)

A variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

A variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the impact of changes made to the independent variable.

Co-Variables

Two variables that are measured in a correlation study to investigate the extent which there is a relationship between them

Confounding Variables

Variables that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher that affect SOME participants behaviours but not others.

Extraneous Variables

Variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher but affect the results of ALL participants.

Alternative/Experimental Hypothesis

Predict that the IV will have an effect on the DV or that there will be a significant relationship between co-variables

Directional Hypothesis

Predict the direction of the effect of the IV on the DV or the direction of the relationship between co variables.

Non-Directional Hypotheses

Do not predict the direction of the effect of the IV on the DV or the relationship between co-variables.

Null Hypotheses

Predict there will be no effect of the IV on the DV or no relationship between two co variables.

Qualitative Data

Form of words which is usually obtained from open questions with unrestricted responses

What are the advantages of Qualitative Data?

Provides more individualized response and deeper understanding, provides a useful basis for developing a hypothesis

What are the disadvantages of Qualitative Data?

Time consuming to analyse and identify patterns and trends in data, Researcher bias as researcher may select data.

Quantitative Data

Data in the form of numbers which result from closed questions with restricted responses

What are the advantages of Quantitative Data?

Data is in the form of numbers so trends and patterns can be easily established, All participants answer the same questions so findings can easily be compared.

What are the disadvantages of Quantitative Data?

Lack of detail may prevent depth of understanding of the reasons why a particular behaviour occurs, Ignores individual differences.

Primary data

Original data gathered by the researcher by undertaking an investigation

What are the advantages of Primary data?

Data is gathered will directly address researchers issues, greater control and awareness of quality of data.

What are the disadvantages of Primary Data?

High cost as it is expensive to plan and undertake an independent investigation, Subject to researcher bias (Researcher knows what to look for)

Secondary data

Data gained from something written about a primary source, includes comments on and interpretations of original data.

What are the advantages of Secondary data?

Data is easy to access and is therefore obtained at low cost, May provide information which answers the research question.

What are the disadvantages of Secondary data?

Quality of data obtained may be difficult to establish, data may not relate directly to the specified research.

Laboratory Experiment

Laboratory setting the researcher deliberately manipulates the IV and measures the DV, While controlling Ev’s

What are advantages of Laboratory Experiments

High level of control so increases experimental validity as confidence that IV caused any change in DV, Standardised procedures lead to increase in reliability.

What are disadvantages of Laboratory Experiments

Artifical laboratory may produce demand characterisitics, low ecological validity which can result in investigator bias.

Field Experiment

The researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV in a natural setting.

What are the advantages of Field Experiments

High ecological validity, natural environment is more likely to reflect real life responses

What are disadvantages of Field Experiments

Problems in controlling extraneous variables results in low experimental validity, difficult to establish cause and effect.

Quasi Experiment

IV is often not under control of the researcher and is not possible to allocate participants randomly to conditions.

Advantages of Quasi Experiments

Allow research to be conducted where it is not possible to separate the IV from the individual

Disadvantages of Quasi Experiments

Participants have not been randomly assigned to conditions so population variables could affect the DV, Reduces validity of study

Natural Experiment

Type of quasi experiment but where the researcher makes use of a naturally occurring event for research purposes.

Advantages of Natural Experiment

Study takes place in a natural environment where the investigator does not manipulate IV, High ecological validity

Disadvantages of Natural Experiment

Little control of extraneous variables, difficult to establish cause and effect relationships

Participant observation (Covert observation)

The researcher is part of the group they are observing and records behaviour without the awareness of those being observed.

What are the advantages of participant observations (covert observations)?

Reduces demand characteristics observants will not change behaviour, gains deeper understanding of participants motivations ‘part of the group’

What are the disadvantages of Participant observations (Covert observation)?

Possibility of investigator bias since the investigator is part of the group they may influence participants behaviour, researchers ability to record accurately may be reduced due to participating in the group.

Non participant observation (Overt observation)

The researcher is not apart of the group being observed and records behaviour while apart from the participants.

What are the advantages of Non participant observations (Overt observations)?

Reduces investigator bias as the investigator does not intervene, observer can record accurately as they have full concentration

What are the disadvantages of Non participant observations (Overt observations)?

Demand characteristics may result from participants awareness that they are being observed, researchers ability may miss subtle verbal or non verbal behaviours due to distance.

What is Event sampling?

Involves observing and recording the behaviour of one or more individuals every time a particular event occurs

What are the advantages of event sampling?

Gains accurate record of the behaviour which is being investigated, suitable for observation of low frequency behaviour.

What are the disadvantages of Event sampling?

Does not collect data on other behaviours occurring during period which limits depth of understanding.

Time sampling

Involves observing and recording the behaviour of an individual or group at particular time intervals

What are the advantages of time sampling?

Allows information regarding a range of behaviours to be recorded providing greater depth of understanding of the context within which behaviour occurs, suitable for recording high frequency behaviours.

What are the disadvantages of time sampling?

Not suitable for observing and recording low frequency behaviours as these may be missed in the periods between sampling

Inter-observer reliability

Where more than one observer records the behaviour occurring at the same time and the extent of agreement between the records of the different observers is measured using a correlation to asses reliability.

Intra-observer reliability

Where the same observer records specified behaviours at different times and the extent of agreement between the different time periods is measured using correlation to assess reliability.

Structured interviews/ Questionnaires

Where all the questions have been prepared and are the same for all participants

What are the advantages of structured interviews/ Questionnaires

Questions are standardised making results easier to compare, standardised questions reduce researcher bias as altering responses isn’t required

Disadvantages of Structured interviews/ questionnaires

Questions may be inappropriate for the particular participant and not give them scope to provide a valid response, participants may not answer honestly.

Semi structured interviews/ Questionnaires

Key questions are preprepared but there is opportunity for researcher to generate individualised questions.

Advantages of semi structured interviews/ questionnaires

Allows relevant material which researcher has not anticipated in preprepared questions, increases likelihood that participants will respond openly

Disadvantages of semi structured interviews/ questionnaires

Increase the chances of researcher bias as researcher has freedom to select questions, Results in different participants being asked different questions.

Unstructured interviews

The researcher may pre-prepare one or two starter questions but remained are then developed by the researcher in response to the participants answers.

Advantages of unstructured interviews

Reduces social desirability and increase likelihood of participant honesty, encourages building trusting relationships.

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Difficult to analyse and compare data between participants in order to draw out trends and patterns. Results in a large volume of qualitative data that is difficult to analyse and compare, researcher bias.

Open Questions

The participant can give any answer they wish

Closed Question

There are a set number of responses which the participant selects from

Semantic differential

The participants makes a mark on a line to express the level of agreement with a particular view

Likert scales

There are a number of responses to a question which often demonstrate a degree of agreement

Rating scale

Participants gives a number that shows a degree of agreement with two statements

Forced choice

Participants choose from a number of statements the one that they agree with most

Correlational studies

Method which investigates the relationship between two co variables, No IV or DV, the investigator does not manipulate/change one variable in order to measure its effect on another.

Advantages of correlational studies

Correlational studies provide a precise mathematical figure for the strength and direction of the relationships between two variables. Data from correlational research is often used as the basis for generating hypotheses to investigate casual links between variables in an experimental setting.

Disadvantages of correlational

Correlational research does not allow cause and effect to be inferred it may be a third factor that causes both. Where the value correlation coefficient is 0 does not mean there i no relationship.

Case studies

In depth study of a single individual conducted over an extended period of time which may involve the use of a variety of methods.

Advantages case studies

Detailed understanding of a particular case can be gained providing valuable insight to underlying behaviour, level of understanding can be used to develop novel hypotheses, high ecological validity, individual differences.

Disadvantages of case studies

Large volume of qualitative data obtained is time consuming and difficult to analyse, difficult to replicate, study is carried out on an individual means’s that the findings cannot be generalised.

Self-report

Any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes beliefs and so on, such as a questionnaire and interviews.

Advantage self report

Gives researcher the respondents own view, able to obtain data where where observational data aren’t available.

Disadvantages of self reports

Validity problems, people aren’t always truthful, participant may not be able to provide the level of detailed needed without input of personal questions

Content analysis

Studying human behaviour indirectly by observing e.g from a TV or magazines.

Advantages of content analysis

Content analysis have a high ecological validity based on observations, no chance of demand characteristics as indirect observation, can be replicated and reliability can be assessed using inter-observer reliability.

Disadvantages of content analysis

Researcher bias, cannot draw cause and effect relationships, low experimental validity, culture bias, unrepresentative sample.

Coding systems

Similarly to a observation the researcher has to create a coding system which breaks down the information into categories.

Sampling frame

Source oof information which a sample is drawn.

Random sampling

Each individual in target population has an equal opportunity of being selected and are selected randomly such as through a random number generator.

Advantages of random sampling

Choice of participants is not subject to researcher bias, sample is not subject to self selection bias

Disadvantages of random sampling

Difficult and expensive, a truly random sample rarely occurs as participants selected can choose not to agree.

Opportunity sampling

Using participants who are willing and able to take part at a particular location/point in time. (Asking participants if interested.)

Advantages of opportunity sampling

The quickest and easiest method of sampling as required number of participants can be obtained.

Disadvantages of opportunity sampling

Sample may be biased due to selection by researcher, sample may not be representative of target population (some people may not be available at the time of selections)

Systematic sampling

Researcher gains a list of target population and selects every nth person to take part in the study.

Advantages of systematic sampling

Sample is not biased by choice of researcher.

Disadvantages of systematic sampling

Sample obtained may not be representative of target population, method used may result in high proportion of one group

Stratified sampling

Dividing target population into important subcategories then selecting participants randomly in proportion.

Advantages of stratified sampling

Deliberate effort is made to identify characteristics of sample, representative of target population

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

Very time consuming since the subcategories have to be identified and calculated

Quota sampling

Population is divided into subgroups and researcher identifies the proportions of these subgroups in target population and will be selected (e.g 2.5% British population is Indian so target population 2.5% Indian)

Advantages of quota sampling

Sample is representative of the entire population in relation to sub groupings, allows researcher to study traits and characteristics for each subgroup

Disadvantages of quota sampling

Sample may not be representative of target population on traits not included in the subgroup such as other factors like age etc.

Self-Selected/ Volunteer sampling

Advertisement or notice requests that individuals volunteer themselves to participate in.

Advantages of self-selected/ volunteer sampling

Practically cheap and easy method of obtaining participants, advertisement may include details of target population

Disadvantages of self-selected/ volunteer sampling

Participants select themselves so is bias, participants who volunteer may not be representative of the target population

Snowball sampling

Method works by existing study participants recruit additional participants from their contact groups. Sample group grows.

Advantages of snowball sampling

Useful method as it requires participant with rare characteristics who may be difficult to obtain, cost of locating samples and researching is not very high.

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

People selected are known to the initial subject and will select others similar leading to sample bias, researcher loses control of sampling for investigation

Independent group/measures

Different groups of participants are used in the different conditions

Advantages of independent groups

No order effects participant have not had previous experience of one condition, participants are less likely to become bored or lose interest.

Disadvantages of independent groups

Participant variables, difference in perforce in two conditions may be due to different characteristics, larger numbers of participants required. Randomisation can deal with this