Issues and debates

Define the term "universality."

Universality - any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of upbringing and experience.

Define the term “gender bias.”

Gender bias - the differential treatment/representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.

Define the term “androcentrism.”

Androcentrism - females being seen as inferior when compared to the male norm

What is the opposite of androcentrism?

Gynocentrism

Give an example of androcentrism.

PMS: a social construct which medicalises female emotions (e.g anger) and sees them as abnormal. Male emotions, like anger are often seen as a rational response to external pressure (basically a double standard)

Freestyle: when women are enthusiastic about something like pop culture, it is seen as “fangirling,” however when men are enthusiastic about sport it is seen as “passion”

What are the two types of gender bias?

Alpha bias - assuming men and women are different when they are not (exaggerating the differences)

Beta bias - assuming men and women are similar when they are not (minimising the differences)

Give an example of alpha bias in psychology.

Freud - saw female behaviour as a “failed form of masculinity.” According to Freud, women are inferior because they suffer from “p£nis envy” and cannot undergo the Oedipus complex, meaning that their superego is weaker and they are therefore morally inferior. This is alpha bias because he sees a multitude of differences between males and females with little evidence to support his claims.

Give an example of beta bias in psychology.

The fight or flight response - early research described the “fight or flight response” as a reaction to stressful situations. This was based on male participants only. This is beta bias because the fight or flight response was assumed to apply to females as well despite only using male participants. In fact, later research has suggested that females have a tendency to “tend and befriend” in stressful situations.

Evaluate gender bias.

There are implications of gender bias. For example, gender biased research could provide scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society- such as females being seen as “slaves to their hormones.” This is an issue because this could have damaging lifelong consequences for women in terms of their psychological wellbeing and career prospects.

There could be sexism within psychological research. For example, there is a lack of women appointed at senior research levels, which means findings are often interpreted from a masculine point of view. This means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism, which can create biases in psychological theories and research.

There may be a gender bias in the publication of psychological research. For example, studies finding significant gender differences are more likely to be published than those finding no significant differences. This creates a publication bias, meaning that the psychological journals may exaggerate the extent of gender differences. As a result, this could contribute to alpha bias and reinforce gender stereotypes in society.

Feminist psychologists offer suggestions for reducing the gender bias in psychology. For example, they argue it is possible to use evidence that women may be inferior to provide support to women to improve. Researchers acknowledged that females might be less effective leaders but this knowledge should be used to offer training to females to create more female leaders rather than use it to discriminate against women. Therefore psychology does not have to have gender bias which oppresses women, but it can be used to help women instead.

Define the term “free will.”

Free will - the idea that all behaviour results from a person's own active volition (will) - we are ‘self-determining’

Give an example of free will. 

Humanism - humanists argue that we make choices about how we behave and we should pursue what we find fulfilling

Define the term “determinism.”

Determinism - the idea that all thought and behaviour is controlled by forces which are outside of a person's individual control. This could be internal or external influences.

What are the three types of determinism? Give examples of each.  

Biological: the belief that behaviour is caused by internal biological factors - behaviour is determined by genetics (e.g. OCD being caused by SERT/COMT genes)

Environmental: the belief that behaviour is caused by external factors of the environment - behaviour is determined by reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment 

Psychic: the belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts - believes that fixation at any of the psychosexual stages can influence later behavioural traits (eg. anal retentive)

What are the two degrees/severities of determinism? 

Hard determinism - suggests that all human behaviour has an internal or external cause that can be investigated. 

Soft determinism - sees behaviour as having a cause but we have mental control over the way we behave. Determining forces act upon us but ultimately we have the freedom to make choices.

Which is more scientific: free will or determinism?

Determinism assumes that behaviour has a cause: it is determined by something else. Free will is much harder to measure.

Evaluate free will and determinism.

One strength of free will is that people believe they are self-determining. For example, everyday experience gives the impression we are free in the choices we make daily (e.g what to have for lunch). This gives a certain degree of face validity to the concept of FW. In fact, belief in FW has psychological benefits (those with an internal LOC [believe they control their life] tend to be more mentally healthy). 

One strength of determinism is that there is empirical reseach which supports it. For example, a study found that the brain can indicate which hand a person chooses to move before the person is consciously aware of having made that choice. This indicates that people are not actually freely making decisions but their decision was predetermined by the brain before they chose to move the hand. This increases the scientific credibility of determinism because it is supported by objective evidence.

One limitation of determinism is that the hard determinism stance doesn’t correlate with society’s view on our moral responsibility over our behaviour. For example, the legal system relies on people being accountable for their actions and assumes they have moral responsibility therefore would not support the hard determinism stance. Hard determinism is an issue for the legal system because criminals could argue their behaviour was determined (e.g by a gene/upbringing) and therefore it questions whether they should be punished.

There is psychological research which demonstrates we may not have FW. For example, in determining the causes of mental illness. The experience of mental illness supports determinism because no one would “choose” to have illnesses like schizophrenia, and it would be highly socially sensitive to suggest otherwise. This has practical applications in understanding the causes of things; in the case of mental illnesses, it can lead to successful treatment options (eg depression caused by low levels of serotonin led to SSRIs).

Define the term “nature.”

Nature - influences that are inherited directly from parents. They include genetic behaviours which lie dormant and appear later through maturation. Supporters of the nature debate are called nativists.

Define the term “nurture.”

Nurture - the idea that all behaviour is caused by a person’s environment. External influences can include: people, opportunities, physical environment and prenatal influences. Supporters of the nature debate are called empiricists.

How is nature/nurture assessed?

Using a heritability coefficient- a number ranging from 0 to 1 which indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (with a value of 1 meaning it is entirely genetically determined).

How can criminal behaviour be explained by nature?

Criminal behaviour is caused by genetics (e.g MAOA). Results of a twin study found that MZ twins had a higher concordance rate than DZ twins.

How can criminal behaviour be explained by nurture?

Crime can be learned - your peers teach you criminal ways. Researchers found that criminal fathers were more likely to have criminal sons.

How can schizophrenia be explained by nature?

Sz is more likely to be developed if genetic relatives also possess it. Sz is also caused by abnormal levels of dopamine

How can schizophrenia be explained by nurture?

Sz is caused by dysfunctional upbringing and traumatic experiences. Having a mother who is cold and rejecting can lead to symptoms of Sz

How can attachment be explained by nature?

Attachment is innate and adaptive. Bowlby’s monotropic theory.

How can attachment be explained by nurture?

Attachment is as a result of an association between mum and food. Cupboard love

theory of attachment

Define the term “interactionism.”`

Interactionism - the widespread acceptance that both nature and nurture are essential for any behaviour, and it cannot be said that a particular behaviour is genetic and another is environmental. It is impossible to isolate the two influences, as nature and nurture do not operate in a separate way but interact in a complex manner.

Explain interactionism using the example of gender.

Nautre: Children are be born as female or male.

Nurture: Parents may encourage girls to be nurturing and boys to be aggressive, which could affect their behaviour.

Explain interactionism using the example of intelligence.

Nature: Children may inherit high intelligence genes from their parents

Nurture: If the environment is not supportive (ie low quality education) this could limit how the genes are expressed

Describe the approach favoured by interactionists. Give an example.

Diathesis stress models - these suggest that a genetic predisposition/vulnerability to, eg. a disorder may exist, but will only develop if environmental triggers are present.

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate.

One strength of the nature-nurture debate is that it has real-world applications. For example for nature: knowledge that depression is caused by a lack of serotonin has led to the development of SSRIs, which aims to treat depression by increasing levels and uptake of serotonin by neurons. This has been found to be beneficial in reducing symptoms of depression, showing the real-world value of applying a nature perspective. For example for nurture: knowledge that depression is caused by negative schemas has led to the development of CBT, which aims to treat depression by rationalising irrational beliefs. This has been found to be effective in treating Treatment Resistant Depression, showing the importance of adopting a nurture perspective. This shows that the debate is significant at a practical level to understand the causes of MH issues.

One limitation of the nature-nurture debate is that it can be difficult to separate out each side’s effect on behaviour, as nature can influence nurture. It can have an influence since people create their own nurture by intentionally seeking environments suited to their nature. Furthermore, the opposite is also true: for example, Maguire studied the brains of taxi drivers who had to take a spatial navigation test known as the “knowledge.” Upon comparison with controls, it was found that the taxi drivers had larger hippocampi as a result of their learning. Consequently, this is additional evidence that it is impossible to separate the effects of nature and nurture on behaviour, thus rendering the debate meaningless/insignificant.

Another limitation of the nature-nurture debate is that it can be considered as reductionist. For example, explaining MH issues purely in terms of genetic inheritance (ignoring environmental influences) or in terms of trauma (ignoring biological/genetic influences). Instead, it would be more holistic to opt for an interactionist approach, which accounts for features of both stances. For example, the diathesis-stress model suggests that some individuals may have a genetic vulnerability to developing a MH issue, but environmental stress is also needed for the disorder to develop. This provides evidence that the nature-nurture debate may be too simplistic, as it attempts to isolate influences that are actually interdependent, thus making the interactionist approach a more realistic explanation of behaviour.

Give one strength and one limitation of the nativist approach.

One strength of the nativist approach is that it has practical applications. For example, knowledge that depression is caused by a lack of serotonin has led to the development of SSRIs, which aim to treat depression by increasing levels and uptake of serotonin by neurons, restoring neurochemical imbalances and hence resulting in better mood. This has been found to be beneficial in reducing symptoms of depression, showing the real-world value of applying a nature perspective.

One limitation of the nativist approach is that there is contradictory research. For example, numerous twin studies (such as Kaij’s) have failed to establish a 100% concordance rate between MZ twins. Since MZ twins share 100% of their DNA then the concordance rate should reflect this. This implies that environment must play a role in behaviour as well, meaning that an interactionist approach is more holistic.

Give one strength and one limitation of the empiricist approach.

One strength of the empiricist approach is that it has practical applications. For example, knowledge that depression is caused by negative schemas has led to the development of CBT, which aims to treat depression by rationalising irrational beliefs. CBT has been found by Willingham to be successful in treating varying levels of depression, showing the importance of applying a nurture perspective, showing the real-world value of applying a nurture perspective.

One limitation of the empiricist approach is that it denies the influence of genetics. For example, researchers found a 48% concordance rate of Sz in MZ twins. This shows that whilst Sz isn’t entirely hereditary, it is evident that genes are a factor that can affect the likelihood of a person developing Sz. This implies that nature plays a role in behaviour as well, meaning that an interactionist approach is more holistic. 

Define the term “holism.”

Holism - understanding human behaviour can only be done through analysing the person or the behaviour as a whole.

Define the term "reductionism."

Reductionism: Understanding behaviour by breaking it down into its parts. It is based on the scientific principle of parsimony (choose the simplest scientific explanation that fits the evidence).

What are the two types of reductionism. Give examples of each. 

Biological reductionism: all behaviour can be explained at a biological level (e.g neurochemical, physical structures evolutionary and genetic influences) - MH issues can be explained by neurotransmitters of the brain (low levels of serotonin = depression).

Environmental reductionism: breaking complex learning up into simple stimulus-response relationships, that are measurable within a lab - the complex behaviour of attachment is reduced to the physical production of food.

What makes psychology reductionist?

Physical sciences believe in parsimony. Therefore as psychology strives to be a science, it is argued the best route to understanding complex behaviour is through reduction of the whole to its simplest parts. Findings can then be replicated and verified empirically.

What are the levels of reductionism? 

Level	How reductionist	Explanation	What it is?
Highest level	Least reductionist	Sociocultural explanation	How social groups affect our behaviour
Middle level	Moderately reductionist	Psychological explanation	How cognitive thought processes affect behaviour
Lowest level	Most reductionist	Biological explanation	How behaviour is caused by hormones and genes

Evaluate reductionism and holism. 

Some areas of psychology have benefited from a holistic explanation. For example, Jahoda’s criteria of ideal MH takes a Bview of what traits people should possess to be mentally well. This is a strength of holism because it shows how useful adopting a holistic approach can be in a therapeutic setting, and how it can be used to improve lives by understanding the complex underlying mental health issues.

However, it could be argued that Jahoda’s criteria is ethnocentric. For example, one of the characteristics identified as an indication of positive mental health is self-actualisation: the desire to reach one’s full potential. Whilst this is viewed as ambitious in individualistic cultures, it can be seen as selfish in collectiveist cultures such as China. This reduces the usefulness of Jahoda’s criteria of ideal MH, hence limiting the applications of holism.

Breaking complex behaviours into small parts means they can be scientifically tested. The operationalisation of variables makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in an objective and reliable way. For example, in Ainsworth’s SS, attachment was operationalised into stranger/separation anxiety, reunion behaviour and secure-base exploration. This is a strength because it allows for psychology to have more scientific credibility as single variables can be isolated and easily studied, allowing for objective conclusions to be drawn, thus improving the validity of research adopting a reductionist approach.

On the other hand, humanist psychologists claim that adopting a reductionist perspective can mean that the overall meaning is lost. For example, isolating single variables, such as treating depression only by adressing neurotransmitter imbalances, ignores the complexities underlying the onset of depression. The oversimplification of human behaviour means that conclusions drawn from a reductionist approach may lack validity, as they do not provide a complete explanation of behaviour and may not accurately reflect the true nature of human experiences.

What are the main points of an idiographic approach?

• studying individuals and not groups

• not generalising to others; we are all unique

• employing qualitative data such as unstructured interviews and case studies

What are approaches that utilise idiographic principles?

• Psychodynamic: uses case studies to investigate people’s subjective experiences to gather information about innate drives (psychosexual stages) BUT with the aim that it can be applied to all human behaviour/experiences.  

• Humanistic: recognises the subjective and individual nature of experiences. Treatment is focused on the individual.

Describe the nomothetic approach.

Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people, and the use of statistical techniques to analyse data e.g. experiments/correlations.

What are three approaches that utilise nomothetic principles?

• Behaviourist: Pavlov/Skinner used highly controlled lab experiments involving animals in order to establish laws of learning (conditioning) that could be generalised to humans. Argues all behaviour is a result of simple stimulus-response links learnt through experience.

• Biologist: pinpoints biological factors, such as neurotransmitters, that are responsible for disorders like OCD/depression and uses biological therapies (e.g. drugs) to treat all patients.

• Cognitive: seeks to develop general laws (e.g. MSM) which can be generalised to everyone. BUT it also utilises the case study method (Clive Wearing - suggests different types of LTM) investigating unique individuals to challenge concepts and prove general laws.

Evaluate the idiographic approach. 

One strength of the idiographic approach is that qualitative data produces an in-depth and more complete account of an individual. For example, the case of patient KF exposed a limitation of the MSM, by providing evidence that the STM consists of at least 2 components (verbal and visual) and not one as originally proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin. This has led to further research into memory, contributing to the development of theories, and our understanding of human behaviour.

One limitation of the idiographic approach is that It offers a narrow perspective as it cannot be generalised beyond the individual, lowering ecological validity. For example, the humanistic approach widely uses the idiographic perspective but is still regarded by many as an unfalsifiable concept due to a lack of empirical evidence. Generalisations cannot be made, meaning that the idiographic approach reduces scientific credibility in psychology.

Another limitation of the idiographic approach is that the research methods used, such as case studies and unstructured interviews, lack scientific rigour. For example, the Little Hans case study may have been subjected to Freud's biased interpretations surrounding castration anxiety. This reduces reliability and validity of findings obtained. This means adopting an idiographic approach may lead to a lack of validity in findings.

Prac apps: CBT

Evaluate the nomothetic approach.

One strength of the nomothetic approach is that highly scientific methods are used. For example, the nomothetic approach utilises methods such as lab experiments, which gathers objective, reliable data due to the high level of control over extraneous variables and standardisation. This increases internal validity of the findings - meaning that findings will have greater scientific credibility using the nomothetic approach.

Another strength is that taking a nomothetic approach has had practical applications. For example, bio psychologists have taken a nomothetic approach when explaining depression. This research formed the basis of developing SSRIs as treatments which aim to reduce the symptoms of depression by addressing the imbalance of NTs, thus reducing the anxiety associated with depression. Therefore, the nomothetic approach can help to improve the quality of life for individuals experiencing depression.

However, it could be argued that side effects limit the effectiveness to such treatments. For example, many individuals that are treated with SSRIs experience adverse side effects of varying severity, including weight gain, increased irritability and in extreme cases, suicidal thoughts. Additionally, not all patients respond to SSRIs, suggesting that an idiographic approach may perhaps be more useful. This limits the applications of the nomothetic approach in developing treatments for depression. 

Another limitation is that the nomothetic approach doesn’t account for the “whole person” and only provides a superficial understanding of human behaviour. For example, in Milgram's research 65% obeyed a destructive authority figure and inflicted a 450v electric shock to the learner because they were told to do so. This means that predictions cannot be made on individual behaviour as a true understanding has not been obtained by taking the nomothetic approach.

Define the term “ethical implications.”

Ethical Implications - the way in which research impacts those who take part in research, or how the findings are used in public.

What is the key difference between ethical issues and ethical implications?

Researchers can control ethical issues within the study but can’t control how it is portrayed in the media and society which causes concern over the ethical implications of the research.

Define the term “social sensitivity.”

Social sensitivity - where there are potential social consequences/implications, for the PP’s in research or the group represented by the PP’s in the study.

What are the three issues (identified by Siebar and Stanley) that researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research? Give examples. 

1. What are the implications of the research? (wider effects/negative implications) - Bowlby’s theory of monotropy: coerced mothers to stay at home and shamed working mothers 

2. What are the potential uses or public policies of the research? (prevention, treatment etc) - Eugenics: Between the 1920-1940s 30 states of America passed laws to force sterilisation on people who scored “sub normal” on an IQ test

3. What is the validity of the research like? (bias, objectivity of data collection methods) - a researcher used twin studies to support his hypothesis that intelligence is genetic. His work influenced further research which led to the 11+ Entry Exams, which impacted generations of children. It was later found that his data was falsified (the twins did not exist)

What are the two types of eugenics? 

Positive eugenics - advocating the improvement of human genetic traits through the promotion of higher rates of sexual reproduction for people with desired traits 

Negative eugenics - advocating reduced rates of sexual reproduction and sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits 

Evaluate social sensitivity.

The current ethical guidelines might be too limited. For example, the ethical guidelines cover the protection of participants in research but they fail to consider the wider effects the research could have on those in wider society. This is an issue because harm can come to those the PPs are representing rather than the PPs themselves, so perhaps the guidelines should be ammended to also consider the potential impact of research on wider society.

One way of dealing with the issue of social sensitivity is to just avoid certain research. For example, research into race, gender, MH, homosexuality etc could simply not be done. This would mean that there wouldn't be any consequences for people, as such socially sensitive research would not be carried out. However, this would rule out a lot of valuable research. Carrying out controversial research can lead to practical applications eg. Rutter’s research into Romanian orphans, which contributed to major changes in adoption and child-care practices. This demonstrates the practical value of socially sensitive research.

There are benefits of conducting socially sensitive research. For example, research into EWT led to the development of the Cognitive Interview which aims to minimise errors made by eyewitnesses in their recall. This is good because the CIs have improved the accuracy of EWT, showing the value of socially sensitive research. However, the CI isn’t consistently used by police, limiting its effectiveness.

There are ways of reducing the chance of socially sensitive research. For example, in using a cost-benefit analysis where the benefits of the research are weighed up against the potential costs. This can reduce social sensitivity because it makes researchers consider the value of their research compared to the potential ethical implications of their findings. Furthermore, this can lead to positive economic implications, by costs being minimised before the research is conducted.