the mind's machine ch. 2

glia/glial cells

non neuronal brain cells, provide structural and nutritional support and process information

input zone

dendrites, collect and process information from the environment and other neurons

integration zone

cell body and axon hillock. where the decision to produce neural signal is made

conduction zone

axon. information is electrically transmitted

output zone

axon terminals/terminal buttons. where information is transferred to other cells.

golgi staining

staining that reveals a few cells in their entirety. guy who made it thought neurons were connected like a continuous matric

cajal

drew golgi’s stained neurons. believed neurons to be individual units

motor neurons

long, long neurons, stimulate muscles

sensory neurons

various shapes, responds to environmental stimuli (can be internal or external)

interneurons

small axons, analyze input from one set of neurons and communicate with others. tell neurons what other neurons are around them

what kind?

multipolar

what kind?

bipolar

what kind?

unipolar

presynaptic membrane

on the axon terminal of the presynaptic cell. the vesicles fuse with the membrane and release their neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

synaptic cleft

the gap that separates pre and post synaptic membranes

postsynaptic membrane

on the post synaptic cell. had neurotransmitter receptors

synaptic vesicles

a bag like enclosure in the presynaptic neuron that holds neurotransmitters

neurotransmitter recepts

specialized proteins. react to transmitter molecules

nissl stain

see all cells but not detailed

c-fos staining

looks at functionality of a particular location

tract tracing

see populations of cells and look at patterns of activation

axon hillock

cylindrical area at base of bell body. if threshold reached it starts first Action Potential that travel down axon. makes sense of chemical inputs to make electrical outputs

axon collateral

when the axon branches

schwann cells

a type of glial cell. provides myelin sheath to neurons outside the brain and spinal cord. only wraps around one bit of axon and one schwann cell makes one ‘balloon’ of myelin

Oligodendrocytes

a type of glial cell. provides myelin sheath to neurons in brain and spinal cord. myelinates multiple sections of multiple neurons.

astrocytes

star shaped glial cell. stretch around and between neurons and blood vessels providing a structure. secrete chemicals and help form outer membrane around brain.

micro glial

type of glial cells. tiny, mobile cells that remove debris and dead/injured cells

nodes of ranvier

gaps between myelin sheaths where axon is exposed

saltatory conduction

special type of conduction in which action potential ‘jumps’ between nodes of ranvier

schwann cell death

when we hurt ourselves and tear through neurons because it’s schwann cells in our PNS we only kill one little part of the axon, not a cell attatched to multiple axons.

oligodendrocytes cell death

when oligodendrocytes die they take a bunch of neurons with them and don’t grow back. create a dead zone in the brain that can never be recovered

PNS bundle of axons

nerve

motor nerves

transfer information from CNS to muscles and glands

sensory nerves

transfer information from body to CNS

autonomic NS

has two parts, sympathetic and parasympathetic

sympathetic NS

preps the body for action, responsible for fight or flight response, expends a lot of energy (turns off some processes to divert energy to more important muscles)

parasympathetic NS

helps the body relax and recuperate (digest). in use most often, more stable, energy conserving

gyri

ridges on the cortex

sulci

valleys in the cortex

cerebrum

the hemispheres of the brain, **not** including the cerebellum

frontal lobe

executive function (in humans), motor and movement systems

parietal lobe

somato sensations (body awareness)

occipetal lobe

visual processing

temporal lobe

auditory processing

central sulcis

divides frontal and parietal regions of brain. had a pre-central gyrus and a post-central gyrus

sylvian fissure

horizontal sulci

cerebellum

‘little brain’, involved in learning, motor skills, storing unconscious memory, balance, muscles moving in tandem

gray matter

more cell bodies and dendrites, closer to outside of cortex

white matter

more axons and myelin, towards center of brain

hindbrain

cerebellum, ponds, medulla

brainstem

midbrain, pond, medulla

embryotic development

a fluid filled neural tube. develops bumps (vesicles) that turn into specific part of the brain

pons

‘bridge’, connects cerebellum to rest of CNS, separates out information for cerebellum or cortex

cortex layers

the cerebral cortex has 6 layers. each layer has different processes and these processes communicate

Forebrain

limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, cingulate gyrus, olfactory bulb, thalamus, hypothalamus) and basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra)

caudate nucleus

light blue part of pic. looks like a horse tail.

amygdala

emotional regulation. small blue dot

basal ganlia

motor control

limbic system

emotion and learning

hippocampus and fornix

learning and memory coding. green

cingulate gyrus

attention. purple

thalamus

center of rain, cluder of nuclei, relay sensory information (except small) to rest of cortex. like a post office. light pink

hypothalamus

controls pituitary gland (endocrine system), regulates rhythms (circadian). blue

midbrain

sensory system of the tectum

superior colliculi

visual processing. handles sudden, unintended incursions into your visual world

inferior colliculi

auditory processing, handles sudden, unintended incursions into your auditory world

substrantia nigra

part of basal ganglia, movement control

reticular formation

involved with sleep and arousal

periaqueductal gray

pain perception

medulla

basic living functions, heart beat, breathing, reflexes (sneezing, blinking)

meninges

three protective layers around the brain and spinal cord


1. dura mater-tough, outermost layer. flexible but not stretch
2. arachnoid membrane-middle layer, filled with cerebral spinal fluid, looks like a spider wed
3. pia mater- delicate innermost layer

meningitis- infection of the meninges

meningiomas- tumors in the meninges

ventricular system

series of chambers filled with CSF

\-2 lateral ventricles, one in each hemisphere

\-3rd ventricle, between thalamus on each side has a hole in the middle to allow the two axons to connect

\-4th ventricle, runs down spinal cord

CSF runs through system, down spine, then back up to the meninges

cranial nerves

12 pairs, connect to brain in order they occur from back to from of head (i.e. nose, eyes, face, neck, tongue, etc.)

spinal cord sections

cervical-thoracic-lumbar-sacral-coccyx

spinal cord

has gray matter **inside** white matter

dorsal root nerves

spinal cord, sensory nerves, sends info in

ventral root nerves

spinal cord, motor nerves, sends info out