psych learning test

learning

any relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice or experience in the environment

classical conditioning

learning where a response can be elicited by a formerly neutral stimulus which prior to conditioning would evoke no response.

neutral stimulus

stimulus that creates no reflex response

unconditioned stimulus

unlearned stimulus that automatically triggers a reflex response

unconditioned response

participants automatic, unlearned physiological response to the unconditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus

stimulus that triggers a conditioned response

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus, now conditioned

extinction

if the CS is continually presented without the UCS the CR will gradually die down

spontaneous recovery

if a period of time is left after the CR has extinguished, then the CR will be exhibited again if the CS is presented

stimulus discrimination

when the conditioned response is elicited to the conditioned stimuli only, and not to other similar stimuli

stimulus generalisation

when stimuli similar to the CS triggers the conditioned response

Pavlov’s dogs

Pavlov, 1902

aim of pavlov

To investigate classical conditioning in dogs

participants in pavlov

dogs

materials in pavlov

Meat powder, a bell, and a Pavlovian apparatus

IV of pavlov

the presentation of stimuli, whether it be the bell, food, or both simultaneously.

DV of pavlov

the times at which the dogs salivated and the amount of saliva secreted.

method of pavlov

Dogs were placed in a harness with a tube to measure saliva (pavlovian apparatus). At first, a bell (NS) did not cause salivation when it was rung. When meat powder (US) was given, the dogs naturally salivated (UR). After multiple pairings of ringing the bell before giving the meat, the dogs began to salivate just at the sound of the bell. The bell became a CS, and the salivation became a CR

key findings of pavlov

The dogs were able to learn to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflex response, leading to the neural response developing into a conditioned response.

contribution of pavlov

• discovered classical conditioning

• allows other researchers to replicate the study and further develop the theory of classical conditioning

• link between physiological and psychological processes and provided insights into heir interaction in the production of learning behaviours.

criticisms of pavlov

• inability to generalise the results from the dogs in Pavlov9s study to humans

• dogs physically + psychologically harmed as they were exposed to unpleasant stimuli

Little Albert

Watson + Rayner, 1920

aim of little albert

To assess whether a child can be conditioned to feel fear through the simultaneous visual presentation of a white rat and the loud noise of a hammer hitting a metal bar.

participant in little albert

eleven month old boy

materials in little albert

A white rat, a rabbit, a seal-skin coat, a Santa Claus mask, a metal pole, and a hammer.

IV in little albert

exposure to various stimuli and the pairing of stimuli

DV in little albert

observed emotional and behavioural responses displayed by the child.

method of little albert

Albert was placed on a mattress and shown a white rat, which he was not afraid of at first (NS). Each time he touched the rat, a loud noise (US) was made, causing him to cry (UR). Eventually after multiple pairings of the NS and US, Albert became afraid of the rat alone, which became a CS, producing a CR of fear + crying. This fear then generalised to similar furry objects when he was exposed to them, like a rabbit, a fur coat, and a Santa mask.

findings of little albert

• was conditioned to feel fear from the sight of the rat after multiple pairings of the loud noise and him reaching out to touch the rat

• Stimulus generalisation occurred because the seal-skin coat, rabbit, and mask were like the white rat in that they were soft and had hair.

contribution of little albert

• provided a clear demonstration of how classical conditioning can be used to elicit a fear response

• led to research on how studies should be carried out

criticisms of little albert

• psychologically harmed

• no informed consent as his mother was not aware of full extent of the experiment

operant conditioning

learning in which the likelihood of a VOLUNTARY behaviour being repeated, is determined by the consequences

reinforcement

a consequence that causes behaviour to occur more frequently.  It can be positive or negative

positive reinforcement

when a behaviour is followed by a positive reward, eg food

negative reinforcement

occurs when a behaviour is followed  by the removal of an unpleasant outcome

punishment

a consequence that causes a behaviour to occur less frequently.  It can be positive or negative

positive punishment

the application of an unpleasant stimulus, eg hitting

negative punishment

the removal of a pleasant stimulus, eg not going out

antecedent

the stimulus that comes before the response. It creates the conditions that primes the organism to behave in a certain way

behaviour

response to the stimulus

consequence

peoples response as a result of the behaviour

schedule of reinforcement

A rule or program that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by the delivery of a reinforcer

fixed interval schedule

when reinforcement is given to a desired response after specific amount of time has passed e.g. a quiz each monday

variable interval schedule

when the reinforcement is provided after a random amount of time has passes and following a specific behaviour being performed e.g randomly checking homework

fixed ratio schedule

reinforces behaviour after a specified number of correct responses e.g doing dishwasher 3 days in a row

variable ratio schedule

a behaviour is reinforced after a random number of responses e.g. pokie machines

law of effect

Thorndike, 1898

aim of thorndike

to examine the influence reinforcement had on the behaviour of cats seeking to escape from a puzzle box to reach food.

participants in thorndike

13 cats

materials in thorndike

Puzzle boxes, food for the cats and a clock for timekeeping.

IV in thorndike

the number of times the cats were placed in the puzzle boxes,

DV in thorndike

the length of time it took for the cats to escape from the puzzle boxes.

method in thorndike

A cat was placed in a puzzle box. Fish was placed nearby the puzzle box. Thorndike used numerous puzzle boxes, each with a different method by which a door could be opened internally by the cat. Thorndike placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box, closed the door of the box and set a mechanism holding the door shut. The time it took for the cat to trigger the release mechanism and exit the box was recorded. This was repeated many times with multiple cats and a range of puzzle boxes.

key findings of thorndike

• Time took to press lever dec each time cats placed in p.b

• likelihood of pressing level inc when cats received food

• cats escaped through trial + error

contribution of thorndike

• Improved understanding of o.c

• created law of effect

• shows important of pos reinforcement

• learning occurs slowly through trial + error

criticisms of thorndike

• simplified notion of learning cannot be generalised to humans

• could not be carried out today due to harm caused to cats

social learning theory

Bandura, 1977

observational learning

occurs by watching others, noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions, and/or then imitating these actions.

attention

In order for something to be learned, it must first be taken in, which requires the individual to pay attention to the model’s behaviour to recognise the distinctive features of it.

retention

The observer must be able to remember the model’s behaviour

reproduction

The learner must attempt to reproduce or copy what has been observed in order to demonstrate that learning has occurred.

motivation

The learner has to be motivated to perform the behaviour in order to receive some form of reinforcement.

reinforcement

the behaviour should have a high incentive value for the learner to carry it out

vicarious reinforcement

when the likelihood of an observer performing a specific behaviour increases after observing another being reinforced for such a behaviour.

procedure in observational learning

MODEL - > attention - > retention - > reproduction - > motivation, reinforcement - > PERFORMANCE

Boba doll experiment

Bandura, and Ross and Ross, 1961

aim of bobo doll

To test whether children will imitate an adult behaving in an aggressive way to a bobo doll

participants in bobo doll

36 girls and 36 boys aged 3-6 years (there was also a control group who didn’t watch an adult role model at all)

method to bobo doll

The experiment began with a child in a room with an adult. The child had access to some toys, while the adult had toys, a Bobo doll, and a mallet. In one group, the adult acted aggressively toward the doll for 10 minutes. In another, the adult played quietly, and in the control group, no adult was present. Next, each child was taken to a room with appealing toys but was told they couldn’t play with them. Finally, they were moved to a third room with both aggressive and non-aggressive toys, including the Bobo doll and mallet. The children were observed through a one-way mirror to assess aggressive behaviours like hitting or verbally attacking the doll.

findings of bobo doll

• Children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour than children who observed the non-aggressive model.

• boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls.

•   boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls.

• little diff between the level of verbal aggression between boys and girls.

• girls exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to imitate physical aggressive responses if the model was male.

• girls exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to imitate verbal aggressive responses if the model was female

criticisms of bobo doll

• Selection bias: all the children came from a nursery attended by children from rich upper class white families

• Convenience sampling: Bandura used children easily available to him at Stanford University where he worked

• Children under the age of 8 have undeveloped frontal lobes which means they find it almost impossible to regulate impulsive behaviour and to separate fantasy and reality

Skinner Box

Skinner, 1948

aim of skinner

investigate whether operant conditioning could lead to the development of superstitious behaviour in animals

participants in skinner

8 pigeons

materials in skinner

experimental cage with attached timer + food hopper and bird feed

IV in skinner

time interval at which food was released

DV in skinner

observed behaviour in pigeons

method in skinner

• The amount of food the pigeons were fed was reduced to increase their hunger levels.

• Each pigeon was then placed individually into the (Skinner box) for a few minutes each day.

• A timer was programmed to present food to the pigeon at set intervals via a hopper

• While the regular interval at which the hopper would tip was manipulated by the researchers, the length of time the hopper remained lowered into position was 5 seconds, during which the pigeon would eat.

• A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement was used.

findings of skinner

• Operant conditioning was found in 6 of the 8 pigeons. Each of the 6 pigeons were conditioned to perform a unique behaviour 4 whatever particular action they were doing at the time the food hopper tipped into the cage.

• For 2 of the pigeons, it was unclear whether a specific behaviour had been conditioned. e.g. turning anti-clockwise

• Shorter intervals between the release of food proved more effective than longer intervals.

• While there appeared to be a cause-and-effect relationship between the behaviour of the pigeon and the release of food, there was in fact no relationship in effect.

contribution of psych

• illustrates how animals can develop accidentally reinforced behaviours similar to humans.

• A cause-and-effect relationship is evidently not required for the development of conditioned behaviour.

criticisms of skinner

• pigeons may have been mistreated but Skinner countered this concern by explaining the pigeons were regularly fed

• Animal studies of learned behaviour are not able to be generalised to humans as diff cognitive abilities

systematic desensitisation

• a type of exposure therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning

• proposed by Joseph Wolpe in 1961

what does systematic desensitisation involve

• gradually exposing the individual to the feared object or situation in a controlled + relaxed enviro

what does system desensitisation combine

• relaxation techniques with hierarchical exposure to the anxiety-causing stimulus, allowing the individual to confront + reduce their fear without an anxiety response gradually

 

phobia

an intense and irrational fear to an object or situation that continues over time

in vitro

client imagines exposure to the phobic stimulus

in vivo

• client is exposed to the phobic stimulus

• more effective than in vitro, based on Menzies + Clarke in 1993

step 1 to S.D - relaxation training

• Deep muscle relaxation techniques and breathing exercises to control anxiety and physical reactions are taught. This is important because of reciprocal inhibition

• With phobias, fears involve tension, and tension is incompatible with relaxation

reciprocal inhibition

one response is inhibited because it is incompatible with another

step 2 to S.D - establishment of anxiety hierarchy

• A list of fear-inducing situations related to the specific phobia is created, ranking them from least anxiety-provoking to most

• list is crucial as it provides a structure for therapy

step 3 to S.D - gradual exposure

• Starting with the least anxiety-inducing situation, there is exposure to each item while employing relaxation techniques.

• They move up the hierarchy when they can remain relaxed at the current level. 

• In time, this exposure in a relaxed state diminishes the anxiety response. 

• The client repeatedly imagines or is confronted by this situation until it fails to evoke anxiety.

advantages of S.D

• Research has found it to be an effective treatment of phobias

• its use is supported by a range of empirical evidence.

disadvantages of S.D

• treats the symptoms of the phobia but not the underlying cause

• exposure is not always practical and/or ethical

token economy

• an artificial system of reward and reinforcement for providing positive reinforcement

• Symbolic markers can be collected by a learner through completing tasks or behaving in desired ways

• These tokens can then be exchanged for something more tangible like goods or privilege

advantages of T.E

• the learner does not become used to the same reward and does not lose motivation to continue with desirable behaviour.

• more successful than simply giving a reward to the learner for exhibiting positive behaviours.

• given immediately so desired behaviour is rewarded as soon as it is exhibited

• system of reward can be adapted to suit the ability/age/needs of the target group

disadvantages of T.E

• Tokens must be desirable and not all learners in group settings will have the same desires

• If a learner believes the tokens are too hard to earn, they will lose motivation

• If other rewards are available, learners may not be interested in the effort required for the additional reward

• Once the learner has left the environment in which the token economy is used, their behaviour may revert as the reinforcer no longer exists

IV of bobo doll

• level of aggression shown on bobo doll

• gender of the aggressor

DV of bobo doll

level of aggression shown by the children

contribution of bobo doll

• attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement

• vicarious reinforcement

• genders exhibit diff levels of aggression