cognition post midterm 2

What are the three stages of the problem-solving process?

1) Recognizing and representing the problem, 2) Analyzing and solving it, 3) Assessing the solution's effectiveness.

What characterizes well-defined problems?

Requirements are unambiguous, all necessary information is present, algorithms can be applied, and there is a single expected outcome.

What is the difference between well-defined and ill-defined problems?

Well-defined problems have clear requirements and solutions, while ill-defined problems are ambiguous, require additional information, and can have multiple solutions.

What is the problem-solving cycle?

1) Define the problem, 2) Analyze the problem, 3) Identify solutions, 4) Choose solutions, 5) Plan action, 6) Implement and evaluate.

What is a brute force approach in problem-solving?

A systematic algorithm that explores all possible steps from the problem to the goal state, guaranteed to find a solution but inefficient.

What is combinatorial explosion?

The phenomenon of computing too many alternatives, which can lead to decision fatigue.

What are heuristics in problem-solving?

Strategies used to select moves in a problem space that help avoid combinatorial explosion and decision fatigue.

What is the hill climbing strategy?

A difference reduction strategy that seeks operators in a problem space that take you closer to the goal, but can lead to false outcomes.

What is means-end analysis?

A flexible approach that identifies sub-problems and includes forward and backward movements to reach the goal state.

What is functional fixedness?

The tendency to perceive objects or tools only in their traditional uses, limiting alternative applications.

What is analogical problem solving?

Making comparisons across scenarios and applying solutions from past situations to current problems.

What is the role of episodic memory in problem-solving?

Episodic memory assists in problem solving, particularly in ill-defined problems.

How do experts differ from non-experts in problem-solving?

Experts spend more time defining the problem and represent it more holistically, while non-experts focus more on developing solutions.

What is the significance of thinking aloud procedures in problem-solving?

They measure complex thinking and help understand the strategies used during problem-solving.

What is the recursive nature of the problem-solving cycle?

The cycle can be repeated as many times as necessary to find a solution.

What is the importance of memory for solutions in problem-solving?

Memory should include the essence of solutions rather than specifics to aid in generalization to new scenarios.

What cognitive load is associated with ill-defined problems?

Ill-defined problems require higher cognitive load and can reduce working memory capacity.

What is the difference between concurrent and retrospective verbalization?

Concurrent verbalization involves describing actions as they occur, while retrospective verbalization involves describing past actions influenced by metacognitive processes.

What is the problem space in problem-solving?

The initial and goal states, intermediate paths, operators, and task constraints involved in solving a problem.

What is the significance of the right prefrontal cortex in problem-solving?

Greater activity in the right prefrontal cortex is observed during ill-defined problem-solving compared to well-defined problems.

What is the role of past experiences in solving ill-defined problems?

They help in recombining related memories to form imagined hypothetical solutions.

What is the target problem in analogical problem solving?

The problem that the person is currently trying to solve.

What is the source problem in analogical problem solving?

The problem that shares similarity with the target problem, often resolved by examining past similar scenarios.

What are surface details in problem solving?

Content scenarios that provide specific information related to the problem.

What does structural similarity refer to in problem solving?

The essence of the problem solution that needs to be generalized.

What factor increases engagement in analogical problem solving?

Content overlap.

How does sleep affect analogical problem solving?

Sleep facilitates creativity in analogical transfer, with REM sleep positively correlated to better problem solving.

What is the Einstellung effect?

A bias to use familiar methods to solve a problem.

What is rigid thinking?

An inability to seek out better methods to solve a given problem.

What is functional fixedness?

The inability to see beyond the most common use of a particular object.

How does functional fixedness develop in children?

Children are less likely to indulge in functional fixedness due to limited experience with object utilization.

What is mental fixedness?

Responding with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate or less productive.

What is productive thinking?

Forming new patterns or ways to view a problem.

What leads to a sudden solution in problem solving?

Restructuring a problem, often resulting in an 'aha' moment.

What are the four features of insight?

1) Suddenness: solution pops into mind with surprise; 2) Ease: solution comes quickly and fluently; 3) Positive: pleasant experience; 4) Confidence: belief that the solution is correct.

What characterizes insight problem solving?

It is involuntary, feels sudden and easy, and is associated with pleasure.

How does non-insight problem solving differ from insight problem solving?

Non-insight problem solving occurs gradually with awareness of incremental success, often using step-by-step algorithms.

What is reasoning in the context of decision making?

The thought process that leads an individual to a conclusion.

What is neuroeconomics?

The study of how we make value-based decisions.

What is inductive reasoning?

Making general conclusions from specific observations, often used in language learning.

What is deductive reasoning?

Using general theories to reason about specific observations, typically slower and requiring more effort.

What does syllogism measure?

Deductive reasoning by evaluating if a concluded statement is valid based on premise statements.

What is the mental model theory?

The theory that people construct mental simulations of the world based on statements to judge logic and validity.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek confirmatory evidence for a hypothesis while overlooking evidence that could disprove it.

What is the return trip effect?

The phenomenon where time is judged differently when returning on a route compared to the initial trip.

What is the return trip effect?

Time judged returning on a familiar route is rated as shorter than the initial route.

What are heuristics?

Generalizations or mental shortcuts applied when reasoning, which can lead to biases.

What is representative bias?

The probability that an item is a member of a category based on resemblance, which can lead to stereotyping and discrimination.

What is base rate neglect?

Ignoring important rate information when reasoning.

What is the conjunction fallacy?

The belief that two events are less likely to be true than one event being true, often seen in those who believe in conspiracy theories.

What is availability bias?

The tendency to think that events are more likely to happen based on how easily they can be remembered.

What are anchoring and adjustment heuristics?

The tendency to rely heavily on initial information (anchor) when making estimations or adjustments.

What is the gambler's fallacy?

The false belief that the predicted outcome of an independent event depends on past outcomes.

What are illusory correlations?

The assumption of a relationship between two co-occurring events.

What is the hot hand belief?

The belief that a person who has experienced success will continue to have success, such as during a winning streak.

What are the two types of reasoning systems?

System 1 (slow, effortful analysis) and System 2 (fast, heuristic-based reasoning).

What are biases in interpreting information?

Deviations from rationality caused by using heuristics, such as representativeness heuristics.

What is regression to the mean?

The phenomenon where extreme values will be closer to the mean upon subsequent measurements.

What is bounded rationality?

The theory that humans are rational relative to environmental and individual constraints.

What does it mean to be a satisficer?

To look for solutions that are good enough rather than optimal.

What is ecological rationality?

The view that heuristics can be the optimal approach to problem-solving in the right environment.

What is perceptual decision making?

Making choices based on objective, externally defined criteria.

What is value-based decision making?

Making choices based on subjective, internally defined criteria influenced by motivational state and goals.

What are decisions under risk?

Decisions made when outcomes are uncertain and information about consequences is incomplete.

What does it mean to be risk averse?

A decision maker has a positive risk premium and prefers a chance at winning significantly more than a certain option.

What is a risk premium?

The difference between expected gains of a risky option and a certain option.

What is the after heuristics bias?

The tendency to overestimate the risk of an event that generates a strong emotional response.

What are the three types of decision makers based on risk preferences?

Risk averse, risk neutral, and risk seeking.

What characterizes a risk averse decision maker?

They have a positive risk premium and need a chance at winning significantly more than a certain option to select the risky option.

What characterizes a risk neutral decision maker?

They have zero risk premium and see no difference between risky and certain options.

What characterizes a risk seeking decision maker?

They have a negative risk premium and do not need a chance at winning more than a certain option to gamble.

What does classical economic theory suggest about decision making?

The rational choice is to pick the option that maximizes expected value.

How is expected value calculated?

Expected value is the probability of winning multiplied by the reward.

What is the framing effect?

A cognitive bias where people's decisions are influenced by how information is presented, even if the options are logically identical.

How do people generally respond to gains versus losses according to the framing effect?

People tend to be risk averse when options are described as gains and risk seeking when described as losses.

What is the endowment effect?

The tendency to ascribe higher value to objects people own compared to identical objects they do not own.

What does prospect theory explain?

It explains how people make decisions under uncertainty, emphasizing that losses loom larger than gains.

What are the two main shapes described in prospect theory?

The shape of the utility function (losses vs gains) and the shape of the probability weighting function (unlikely vs likely events).

What does the fourfold pattern in decision making indicate?

It shows that people tend to be risk seeking for high probability losses, risk averse for high probability gains, risk averse for low probability losses, and risk seeking for low probability gains.

What are the two systems of decision making in dual process theory?

System 1 is fast, automatic, and emotional; System 2 is slow, deliberative, and logical.

What is prediction error?

The difference between what you predicted would happen and what actually happened.

What did Albert Einstein suggest about intelligence?

The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge but imagination, specifically the ability to apply learned knowledge to new situations.

What is psychometrics?

The study of psychological assessment.

What is standardization in the context of testing?

Test scores are compared to a pre-tested standardization or norm group.

What does a normal distribution or curve represent?

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of test scores.

What is reliability in psychological testing?

The consistency of test scores across instances of testing.

What is validity in psychological testing?

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Who created the first intelligence test and what was its purpose?

Alfred Binet created the test to identify children needing special education.

What did Alfred Binet believe about intelligence?

He believed intelligence could not be fully tested and was more important for practical life, adapting to circumstances, and reasoning.

How do IQ scores correlate with age according to reliability studies?

IQ scores have high test-retest reliability, with scores at age 6 correlating with scores at age 18.

What factors can influence intelligence measurements?

Socioeconomic status, gender differences, self-estimated intelligence, and culture.

What does the Simone-Binet test measure?

It calculates mental age by comparing an individual's score to that of a group of children of the same chronological age.

How is the IQ ratio score calculated in the Stanford-Binet test?

IQ ratio scores are calculated as mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.

What distinguishes Wechsler tests from other intelligence tests?

Wechsler tests provide separate scales for children and adults and measure different types of intelligence, yielding performance and verbal IQ.

What is the purpose of Raven's Progressive Matrices?

It assesses non-verbal reasoning by showing a pattern with a missing section and asking the test-taker to identify the missing piece from options.

What does the Flynn effect suggest about IQ scores?

It indicates that factors other than genetics, such as complexity and health, can affect variations in IQ scores.

What are the two components of Cattell and Horn's theory of intelligence?

Fluid intelligence, which declines with age, and crystallized intelligence, which increases with learning and remains stable.

What is Savant syndrome?

A condition where a person with limited mental ability has an exceptional specific ability.

What are the three components of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

1) Meta component: planning and decision making, 2) Performance component: executing tasks, 3) Knowledge acquisition component: learning and storing information.

What is the difference between analytic, creative, and practical intelligence in Sternberg's theory?

Analytic intelligence involves problem-solving steps, creative intelligence fosters insight through experience, and practical intelligence is the ability to adapt to everyday contexts.