Anatomy, Physiology, Cells, and Tissues Review Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering anatomical terminology, body planes, microscopic anatomy, cell organelles, plasma membrane transport mechanisms, cell division stages, histology, and integumentary structures.

Anatomy

The study of the body and its structure.

Physiology

The study of the body structure and how it functions.

Scientific Method

A process of observing natural events, forming a hypothesis, testing it through experiments using data points, and determining if the data supports, modifies, or rejects the hypothesis.

Microscopic Anatomy

The study of body structures that cannot be seen by the human eye without the use of a microscope.

Cytology

Cellular anatomy; the scientific study of single cells and their internal structures.

Histology

The study of tissues and how groups of specialized cells function together.

Gross Anatomy

Also known as macroscopic anatomy; the study of larger body parts visible to the naked eye, often performed via dissection.

Comparative Anatomy

A branch of gross anatomy that compares similarities and differences across species.

Developmental Anatomy

The study of structural changes that occur from birth to adulthood.

Embryology

The study of structural changes that occur prior to birth.

Regional Anatomy

The study of all structures in a specific body region as a single unit.

Surface Anatomy

The study of markings on the surface of the skin used for locating internal structures, pulses, and joints.

Systematic Anatomy

Gross anatomy studied organ system by organ system.

Pathological Anatomy

The study of structural changes caused by disease.

Radiographic Anatomy

The study of internal body structures visualized through medical imaging such as X-rays and MRI scans.

Surgical Anatomy

The study of anatomical landmarks used before and after surgical procedures.

Epithelial Tissue

Tissue that covers body surfaces and lines cavities, serving as a protective shield for organs.

Connective Tissue

The most diverse and abundant tissue type that supports, protects, and interconnects or binds organs together.

Muscle Tissue

Tissue composed of specialized cells that contract to produce body movement and heat.

Nervous Tissue

Tissue designed to detect stimuli, process information, and rapidly transmit electrical impulses throughout the body.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions in the body that break down consumed substances, utilize energy, and handle waste.

Homeostasis

The process of maintaining a consistent, steady-state internal body environment.

Anatomic Position

A standard reference posture where the body stands straight up, feet flat on the floor, head facing forward, arms at sides, and palms turned forward.

Coronal (Frontal) Plane

A vertical plane that cuts the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves.

Transverse (Cross-Sectional) Plane

A horizontal plane that splits the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) halves.

Midsagittal (Median) Plane

A vertical plane running directly down the exact centerline of the body, splitting it into equal left and right halves.

Sagittal Plane

A vertical plane parallel to the midline that divides the body into unequal left and right portions.

Oblique Plane

A plane cut made at a slanted angle through the body or an organ.

Anterior

Refers to the front side of the body.

Posterior

Refers to the back side of the body.

Superior

Positioned higher up, closer to the head.

Inferior

Positioned lower down, closer to the feet.

Medial

Closer to the middle midline of the body.

Lateral

Farther away from the middle midline of the body.

Deep

Located further inside the body, away from the surface.

Superficial

Located near the external surface of the body or skin.

Proximal

Closer to the point where a limb attaches to the torso.

Distal

Farther away from the point where a limb attaches to the torso.

Axial Region

The central core axis of the body, which includes the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular Region

The body region consisting of the upper and lower limbs attached to the axial core.

Light Microscope

An instrument that passes visible light through a specimen to produce a two-dimensional image.

Transmission Electron Microscope

An instrument that passes an electron beam through a thin-cut section to generate a high-resolution 2D ultrastructural image.

Scanning Electron Microscope

An instrument that moves an electron beam across a specimen surface to create a detailed three-dimensional image of surface topography.

Cytosol

The viscous, syruplike fluid portion of cytoplasm containing dissolved nutrients, ions, and proteins.

Inclusions

Non-membrane-bound cytoplasmic droplets or granules that temporarily store cellular products and nutrients.

Nucleolus

A dense, dark-staining region inside the nucleus responsible for synthesizing rRNA and assembling ribosome subunits.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

An interconnected network of membrane tubules lacking ribosomes that synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies drugs and toxins.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae studded with ribosomes that synthesizes proteins for secretion, membranes, and lysosomes.

Golgi Apparatus

A series of flattened, smooth membrane sacs that modifies, packages, and sorts newly synthesized proteins.

Lysosomes

Membrane-enclosed sacs containing digestive enzymes that break down unneeded materials, damaged organelles, or pathogens.

Peroxisomes

Membrane-enclosed sacs containing enzymes that detoxify harmful substances and convert metabolic hydrogen peroxide into water.

Mitochondria

Double-membrane organelle containing inner folds called cristae that synthesizes most ATP through cellular respiration.

Cilia

Short, microtubule-containing cellular projections that move fluids, mucus, and materials across the cell surface.

Flagellum

A long, single microtubule projection that propels a sperm cell in human males.

Microvilli

Thin membrane folds projecting from the free surface of a cell that increase surface area for absorption and secretion.

Phospholipids

Amphipathic lipids forming a bilayer with polar hydrophilic heads and nonpolar hydrophobic tails.

Glycocalyx

An external carbohydrate coating on the cell surface formed by glycoproteins and glycolipids that functions in cellular recognition.

Simple Diffusion

Passive movement of small, nonpolar, lipid-soluble molecules directly through the membrane down their concentration gradient without cellular energy.

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive transport of large or lipid-insoluble molecules across the plasma membrane using specific carrier or channel transport proteins.

Osmosis

The simple diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to lower water concentration.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

An active transport exchange pump that uses ATP to move $3$ sodium ions out of the cell and $2$ potassium ions into the cell.

Exocytosis

An active bulk transport process where intracellular vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to discharge materials outside the cell.

Phagocytosis

A form of endocytosis known as cellular eating, where a cell extends pseudopodia to engulf large particles or micro-organisms.

Pinocytosis

A form of endocytosis known as cellular drinking, involving the internal intake of tiny droplets of extracellular fluid.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

A selective endocytosis process where target molecules bind to specific integral membrane protein receptors before being internalized in a vesicle.

Interphase

The non-dividing phase of the cell cycle lasting approximately $23\,hours$ where the cell grows, performs normal functions, and replicates DNA.

Mitotic (M) Phase

The cell cycle division phase lasting approximately $1\,hour$, consisting of mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).

Prophase

First stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope break down, and spindle fibers form.

Metaphase

Mitotic stage where replicated chromosomes line up along the equatorial plate in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase

Mitotic stage where spindle fibers shorten and pull sister chromatids apart toward opposite cell poles.

Telophase

Final stage of mitosis where single-stranded chromosomes reach opposite poles, nuclear envelopes reform, and a cleavage furrow completes cytokinesis.

Necrosis

Accidental and irreversible cell or tissue death resulting from physical injury or harmful agents, triggering inflammation.

Apoptosis

Programmed, controlled cell suicide characterized by chromatin degradation and cell shrinkage without inflammation.

Metastasis

The spread of malignant cancer cells from their original site to other organs via blood or lymph vessels.

Mesenchyme

The star-shaped embryonic connective tissue derived from mesoderm that serves as the common origin for all adult connective tissues.

Mucous Connective Tissue

Embryonic connective tissue also known as Wharton's jelly, located exclusively inside the umbilical cord.

Fibroblasts

Abundant stationary resident cells in connective tissue proper that produce extracellular matrix fibers and ground substance.

Areolar Connective Tissue

Unspecialized loose connective tissue with loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers, abundant blood vessels, and a viscous ground substance.

Hyaline Cartilage

The most common type of cartilage, featuring a clear, glassy matrix containing scattered chondrocytes in lacunae.

Fibrocartilage

Durable, shock-absorbing cartilage with dense parallel collagen bundles and no perichondrium, found in intervertebral discs and knee menisci.

Elastic Cartilage

Flexible and resilient cartilage containing abundant branching elastic fibers, located in the external ear and epiglottis.

Compact Bone

Dense outer bone structure composed of repeating functional cylindrical units called osteons.

Spongy Bone

Internal porous bone lattice that houses hematopoietic stem cells responsible for blood cell production.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Voluntary muscle tissue consisting of long, cylindrical, striated fibers containing multiple peripheral nuclei.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Involuntary heart muscle tissue made of short, branched, striated cells connected by intercalated discs.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Involuntary visceral muscle tissue consisting of non-striated, spindle-shaped cells with a single central nucleus.

Metaplasia

Reversible transformation of one mature epithelial tissue type into another mature type in response to chronic injury or environmental stress.

Hypertrophy

An increase in the physical size of existing individual cells within a tissue.

Hyperplasia

An increase in the total number of cells in a tissue as a result of active mitosis.

Atrophy

Shrinkage of a tissue or organ caused by a decrease in cell size or cell number.

Stratum Basale

The deepest single layer of epidermal stem cells, melanocytes, and tactile cells resting on the basement membrane.

Stratum Corneum

The outermost skin layer composed of $20$ to $30$ layers of dead, flattened, anucleate, keratin-filled corneocytes.

Merocrine Sweat Glands

Coiled tubular exocrine glands that secrete watery sweat via exocytosis directly onto the skin surface for temperature regulation.

Apocrine Sweat Glands

Exocrine glands located in axillary and pubic regions that release viscous, lipid-rich secretions into hair follicles starting at puberty.

Sebaceous Glands

Holocrine exocrine glands that discharge an oily fluid called sebum into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair.

Basal Cell Carcinoma

The most common and least invasive form of skin cancer, originating from stem cells in the stratum basale.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Skin cancer originating from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum.

Malignant Melanoma

The most dangerous and lethal type of skin cancer, arising from melanocytes.