UC Davis PSC 001 - Midterm 1

Critical Thinking

systematically questions and evaluates information using well-supported evidence: weighs facts, considers source, uses logic and reasoning to see whether information makes sense, considers alternate explanations

Dualism

(Descartes) the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact with one another, and in some cases are intertwined

Structuralism

(Wundt) an approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components

Functionalism

(James) an approach to psychology concerned with the purpose/function of behavior

Gestalt

(Koffka) the whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its parts

Psychoanalysis

(Freud) a method that attempts to bring the content of the unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed

Behaviorism

(Watson) a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing observable behavior

Cognitive Psychology

the study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, and decision making

Cognitive Neuroscience

the study of neural mechanisms underlying thought, learning, perception, language, and memory

Social Psychology

the study of how people influence other people's thoughts, feelings, and actions

Evolutionary Psychology

this field attempts to explain mental traits as products of natural selection

The Case Study of Genie

A girl who suffered extreme privation, her parents left her in a basement, gave her food and prevented her from making any form of attachment. She was beaten for making sounds. Didn't have toys or any other children to interact with.

Although she received extensive teaching, she had trouble speaking clearly at an adult-level, showing the consequences of extreme social isolation on language development and an existence of the critical period for language.

Stages of Prenatal Development

conception-birth

1. zygote: conception-2 weeks

2. embryo: 2 weeks-2 months (forming organs)

3. fetus: 2 months-birth (organs formed, heart beats)

Teratogens

agents from the environment that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Brain Development

by age 4, the human _____ has grown to about 80% of adult size

Development of Frontal Cortex and Limbic Systems in Adolescents

the _______ ______ of the brain is not fully developed until the early 20s, so adolescents have a difficult time thinking critically about the consequences of their actions or planning; the _______ ______ is associated with higher order thinking, problem solving, and planning

the ______ ______ matures more quickly than the former; the ______ ______ is the neural basis for mood, emotion, and drives

this disconnect results in teenagers being more likely to act on their impulses.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing; timing varies depending on biological and environmental influences

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

throughout every stage of life, an individual must face a crisis that they must overcome; for adolescents, they must develop an adult identity (gender/ ethnic) or risk role confusion

Effects of Aging on Cognition

steady decline in overall health, memory, and mental processing, as the frontal lobes of the brain shrink throughout adulthood, but intelligence is unchanged

people who engage in physical, social, and mental activities tend to show less cognitive decline as they age

Nature and Nurture

genetics and environment; they influence one another and are inseparable; these two factors have a hand in the development of individuals

Genotype

the genetic material we inherit from our parents

Phenotype

the observable expression of the genotype, including bodily characteristics and behavior

Environment

every aspect of the individual and his or her surroundings (including prenatal experience) other than the genes

Epigenetics

how genes are expressed depending on environment

Mendelian Inheritance

a sort of gene inheritance

dominant gene: expressed whenever it is present in either parent

recessive gene: expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from other parent

Polygenic Inheritance

inheritance in which traits are governed by more than one gene

Sensory Neurons

these neurons detect information from the physical world and pass that information to the brain

Motor Neurons

these neurons direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement

Neuron Structure

dendrite → cell body → axon → myelin sheath → terminal buttons → synapse

Neural Communication

neurons are powered by electrical impulses & communicate with other neurons via chemical signals (neurotransmitters)

Myelination

the process by which axons become coated with ______, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron; made up of glial cells; encases and insulates certain axons

Synaptic Transmission

1. action potentials cause neurotransmitters to be released by the presynaptic neuron

2. travel across the synapse

3. bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neurons' dendrites

4. continues to have an effect until somehow deactivated

Serotonin

a type of neurotransmitter that plays an important role in our experience of different moods

Dopamine

a type of neurotransmitter that plays an important role in our experience of rewards

Cerebral Cortex

occipital lobe: vision (eyes on the back of your head)

temporal lobe: hearing, memory (right next to your ears)

frontal lobe: thought, planning, movement (will face any challenge head on)

parietal lobe: touch, spatial relations (presence and proximity to stimulus)

Corpus Callosum

this section of the brain connects the right and left hemispheres and allows information to flow between them

Autonomic Nervous System

a part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the body's internal environment through the sympathetic division and parasympathetic division

stimulates glands and maintains internal organs; carries signals from glands and organs to central nervous system

Sympathetic Division

the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats; fight or flight

Parasympathetic Division

the part of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources; resting, peaceful

Plasticity

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

What Makes a Good Theory?

supported by data, falsifiable, parsimonious, experiment is stable over numerous trials, leading back to the theory

Scientific Method

systematic procedure for observing & measuring phenomena to answer empirical questions

1. theory: an explanation or model of how a phenomenon works

2. hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction about the outcome that would best support the theory

3. research: the systematic and careful collection of data

Descriptive Studies

aka observational studies; involve observing & noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic & objective analysis of the behavior

Correlational Studies

examine how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them; researchers cannot draw causal conclusions from correlational studies; correlation≠causation

Experimental Studies

study that tests causal hypotheses by measuring (dependent variable) and manipulating (independent variable) variables

Confound

a factor other than the independent variable that may influence the results

Reliability

extent to which a measure is stable & consistent over time

Validity

extent to which study actually measures what it intends to measure

Internal Validity

the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation

External Validity

the degree to which the findings of a study generalize to the real world

Correlations

how two variables relate to each other

positive ___________: both variables either increase or decrease together

negative ___________: as one variable increases, the other decreases

___________ coefficient: a number between −1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two variables

Observer Bias

systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations; the observer seeks to find data that fits their theory

Random Assignment

each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable, to ensure preexisting differences are randomly distributed between conditions (during experiment)

Random Sampling

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate (before the experiment)

Significance Testing

how likely differences between groups and relationships between variables occur by chance

Sensation

the sense organs' detection of external stimulus, their response, & the transmission of these responses to the brain

Perception

the brain's processing, organization, & interpretation of sensory signals; results in internal representations of the stimuli that form a conscious experience of the world

Perception Pathway

sensory receptors detect specific physical or chemical stimulation → connecting neurons → thalamus → primary sensory cortex, where impulse is interpreted

exception: smell has the most direct route to the brain—doesn't go through the thalamus

Absolute Threshold

the minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation (stimuli correctly detected 50% of the time)

Signal Detection Theory

detection of a faint stimulus requires a judgment based on a subjective interpretation of ambiguous information

Bottom-up Processing

perception based on the physical features of the stimulus

Top-down Processing

how knowledge, expectations, or past experiences shape the interpretation of sensory information

Visual Pathway

light → cornea → lens → retina → photoreceptors (rods, cones, ganglion cells)

Hearing

hair cells are the sensory receptors for...

Taste

taste buds are the sensory receptors for...

Smell

olfactory epitheliums are the sensory receptors for...

Touch

skin is the sensory receptor for...

Vision

photoreceptors (rods and cones) found in the retina are the sensory receptor for...

Fast Pain Fibers

sharp, fast pain; useful for immediate protection

Slow Pain Fibers

chronic, dull, steady pain; useful for recuperation and spinal cord processing