Regents Biology Midyear Review Bronx Science

biology

the study of life

metabolism

all the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to sustain life

what are all the metabolic processes in organisms?

nutrition, transport, respiration, excretion, synthesis, growth, and reproduction

nutrition

the obtaining and processing of food materials within an organism

transport

the intake and distribution of materials throughout an organism

• complex animals have circulatory systems (materials carried through blood)

respiration

the release of energy from food molecules
there are two types of cellular respiratin

• aerobic

• anaerobic

aerobic respiration

a process that requires oxygen to convert glucose into energy, producing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts

anaerobic respiration

a process that occurs without oxygen, converting glucose into energy while producing byproducts such as lactic acid or ethanol.

excretion

the removal of metabolic waste from an organism

synthesis

the process of combining simpler substances to form more complex molecules

• can help form new cells to grow and repair worn and lost parts

assimilation

incorporation of materials into an organism

regulation

the coordinated process of maintaining internal stability in an organism's environment despite external changes the control

• regulation is carried on by the nervous and endocrine system

homeostasis

the process by which living organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain stability and balance despite changes in external conditions

homeostasis vs regulation

homeostasis is a stable internal environment
regulation is anything an organism does to maintain homeostasis

growth

the increase in size of an organism that results from the synthesis and organization of materials into new substances and structures

• Unicellular organisms grow by increasing the cell volume

• Multicellular organisms grow by increasing the number of cells and/or increasing volume

reproduction

the ability for organisms to produce more of the same species

• essential to the species as a whole, not an individual organism

ecology

the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their physical environments

the levels of organization

organism, species, population, community, ecosystem, biome, and biosphere

organism

a single living organism

species

a group of multiple similar organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring

population

a group of individuals of the same species living in an area

ecosystem

abiotic and biotic factors interacting that live together in an area

biotic

living

abiotic

non-living

biome

a collection of ecosystems that share similar climates and dominant communities

aquatic biome

primarily based in water that include both abiotic and biotic factors

terrestrial biome

primarily based on land that include both abiotic and biotic factors

biosphere

where all life on earth is located

ecological methods

the three methods modern ecologists use in ecological research

observation

observe organisms and their interactions in natural settings to gather data on behaviors, populations, ecosystems, etc. Asking questions that may form the first step in designing experiments and models

experimentation

manipulates variables in controlled environments to test the hypothesis

modeling

mathematical formulas based on data collected through observations and experimentation. Used to help understand complex events that are difficult to study directly

feeding relationships

relationships where organisms eat other organisms to procure nutrients

nutrients

chemical substances needed to build tissue, carry out life processes, and sustain life

primary producers

the first producers of energy-rich compounds that are later used by other organisms. (autotrophs)

consumers

organisms that consume other organisms for energy (heterotrophs)

• Primary (1°) consumers eat producers

• Secondary (2°) consumers eat 1° consumers (and possibly primary producers)

• 3° consumers, 4° consumers, etc.

autotrophs

organisms that can produce their own food without relying on another organism for energy

• E.g. plants capturing energy from sunlight and chemicals and convert it into energy for its cells to use through photosynthesis

photosynthesis

energy is created using sunlight, CO2 and creates C6H12O6 and O2

chemosynthesis

energy is created using chemicals as the energy source

heterotrophs

organisms that consume other organisms or plants for energy and nutrients

carnivore

organisms that consume animals

herbivore

organisms that consume plants

omnivore

organisms that consume plants and animals

predation

a predator eating prey

symbiosis

: a close relationship between organisms of two different species that helps at least one of them

• mutualism

• parasitism

• commensalism

parasitism

a parasite takes nutrients from the host and harms the host (e.g. tics, lice, tapeworms)

commensalism

one organism is helped, and the other organism is neither helped nor harmed (e.g. whales and barnacles)

mutualism

all the organisms are helped and benefit from their relationship

decomposer

an organism that feeds on and chemically breaks down dead plant or animal matter which provides extra nutrients for the soil and produces detritus

detritus particles

non-living particles of organic origin

detrivore

an organism that feeds on detritus particles

scavenger

an organism that that consumes dead biomass killed by predators or natural causes

saprobes

an organism, such as a fungus or bacterium, that lives on and gets its nourishment from dead organisms or decaying organic material

energy flows through feeding relationships in an ecosystem

• Light or chemical energy —> Producers —> 1° consumers —> 2° consumers —>° 3 consumers

• Light or chemical energy —> Plants —> Sheep —> Foxes —> Bears

• Consumers are eaten by decomposers, scavengers, and saprobes

food chain

a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy to one another

food web

a network of complex interactions for by the feeding relationships among the various organisms in an ecosystem

• multiple food chains in an ecosystem

trophic level

each step in a food chain or web

ecological pyramids

the relative amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food chain or web

• pyramids of energy

• pyramids of biomass

• pyramids of numbers

pyramids of energy

the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level of a food chain or food web

• Light or chemical energy —> Producer - 1000 units of energy —> 1° consumer - 100 units of energy absorbed —> 2° consumer - 10 units of energy absorbed

• Energy is lost through life processes, heat, etc.

• rule of tenths

pyramids of biomass

the relative amount of living organic matter available at each trophic level in an ecosystem

pyramids of numbers

the relative number of individual organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem

law of conservation of matter

matter can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can change forms

the water cycle

water continuously moves between the ocean, the atmosphere and land. Sometimes outside living organisms sometimes inside them.

• Water from bodies of water evaporates then condenses into clouds

• Water vapor transported by winds over large distances condenses into tiny droplets that form clouds as the air cools

• Groundwater is released into the atmosphere through transpiration

• Water falls to the surface as precipitation when the water droplets become heavy enough

  • Precipitation can be carried back into a body of water

  • Precipitation absorbed by soil is called groundwater

the carbon cycle

plants take in carbon dioxide from the environment and creates sugar through photosynthesis. Consumers eat the plants to obtain carbon. The consumers release carbon dioxide (product of cell respiration) or are decomposed, and carbon is released back into the environment. The released carbon dioxide is then taken up by plants to continue the cycle

the nitrogen cycle

nitrogen fixing bacteria take in nitrogen gas and convert it into nitrates. Nitrates are absorbed by plants and are used to synthesize proteins. Consumers eat the plants and use the plant protein to make their own proteins. The consumers release nitrogenous wastes as urea. Nitrifying bacteria convert urea into ammonia and nitrites. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrites to nitrogen gas

the phosphorus cycle

phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil and sediments and organisms. Over time, rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphate ions and other minerals. This inorganic phosphate is then distributed in soils and water. Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil

limiting factors

constraints a population’s size

density dependent factors

limiting factors that depend on population density (e.g. disease, competition, food availability)

density independent factors

limiting factors that do not depend on population density. Affects all populations equally (e.g. climate change and natural disasters)

carrying capacity

maximum stable population in an ecosystem

habitat

a general place where an organism lives

niche

the range of physical and biological conditions in which species lives in the way a species obtained what it needs to survive and reproduce.

“the way an organism lives its life”

principle of exclusion

when a niche is shared by two or more species, they compete for resources so only one species remains

intraspecific competition

competition between members of the same population

• leads to differential reproduction success and natural selection

differential reproduction success

some organisms of a species leave more offspring in the next generation than do others

often due to traits that confer advantages in survival and/or reproduction.

natural selection

the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change

keystone species

species that are crucial to the stability of the ecosystem

ecological succession

the natural gradual change in an environment

• primary succession

• secondary succession

primary succsession

the development of an ecosystem in an area that has no life in a predictable order

secondary succession

the process of ecosystem goes through to recover from a natural disaster human activity

• Secondary succession, create a stable ecosystem, faster than primary succession because it already has soil

pioneer organisms

low growing plants that don’t require surplus nutrients. Grows in barren rock and starts to colonize which breaks down the rock surface to create soil

serial stages

the series of changes that an ecosystem goes through with its species and dominant populations

climax community

the final serial stage and the final organisms that live in ecosystem. The endpoint of ecological succession

secondary succession

how are biomes described?

in terms of abiotic factors like climate and soil type, and biotic factors like plants and animals

terrestrial biomes

tropical wet forests, tropical dry forests, savannas. temperate grasslands, tundra, boreal forests, deserts, etc

aquatic biomes

neritic zone, continental shelf, intertidal zone, photic zone, benthic zone

neritic zone

The shallow part of the ocean near the shore, where sunlight reaches the ocean floor and many marine organisms live

above the

• lots of sunlight

• shallow

continental shelf

a broad, relatively shallow submarine terrace of continental crust forming the edge of a continental landmass

intertidal zone

the area where the ocean meets the land, covered by water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide

shoreline submerged by tidal oscillation two times per day

photic zone

the sunlit upper layer of the ocean where photosynthesis occurs

aphotic zone

the dark part of the ocean below the photic zone where no sunlight

benthic zone

the ocean floor and the organisms living on or near it, from shallow waters to the deepest trenches.

the seafloor

• low population due to the lack of producers

hydrothermal vent communities

producers are chemosynthetic bacteria make sugar from abiotic minerals released by vents

solution

homogeneous mixture of two substances

solvent

a dissolved substance (e.g. salt)

solute

a substance that dissolves a solute (e.g. water)

diffusion

the movement of a substance from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration

dynamic equilibrium

a system that is stable even after it changes

global warming

the rise in Earth's average temperature due to an increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere