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Phosphorylation
The process in which glucose is activated through a reaction with ATP, producing a six-carbon sugar with two phosphate groups attached.
Lysis
The splitting of fructose 1,6 bisphosphate into two molecules of triose phosphate.
Oxidation
The process in which triose phosphate gets oxidized by the removal of hydrogen, catalyzed by dehydrogenase enzyme.
ATP synthesis
The production of ATP during the conversion of each triose phosphate molecule to pyruvate.
Location of aerobic respiration
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, while the link reaction, Krebs cycle, and ETC occur in the mitochondria.
Fermentation
The process that occurs in anaerobic respiration when there is no supply of oxygen, involving the conversion of pyruvate into either alcohol or lactate.
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate, made up of adenosine, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
Ways ATP is generated
Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, while chemiosmosis occurs in the electron transport chain.
Net products of aerobic respiration
6 CO2, 4 ATP, 10 NADH, and 2 FADH2.
Chemiosmosis in synthesis of ATP
The final stage of aerobic respiration where hydrogen atoms are transported along a series of carriers, creating a concentration gradient of protons that is used to synthesize ATP.
Light dependent reaction
The process in photosynthesis where water is split, producing ATP, NADPH, and oxygen as a waste product.
Photophosphorylation
The process of synthesizing ATP using light energy in the light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen.
Calvin Benson cycle
The cycle in photosynthesis where carbon dioxide combines with RuBP to form G3P, which is then converted into glucose.
Blood sugar level
The concentration of glucose in the blood, regulated by insulin and glucagon.
Reabsorption of kidney
The process in the kidney where substances such as sugars, amino acids, and water are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream.
Homeostasis
The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body, regulated by various mechanisms including hormones.
Glucagon
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that causes the conversion of glycogen back to glucose and reduces the rate of respiration.
ADH
Antidiuretic hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland, which increases the reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidney.
Endocrine
The system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions.
Pituitary gland
A gland in the brain that coordinates the endocrine system and nervous system by working with the hypothalamus.
Chemical messengers
Substances that are transmitted in the bloodstream to communicate between the endocrine system and target cells.
Target cells
Cells in the body that are influenced by hormones and undergo changes in metabolic activity.
Long lasting effects
Effects of hormones that can last for minutes, hours, or even longer periods of time.
Endocrine glands
Glands in the body that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Capillary networks
Networks of small blood vessels that are present in endocrine glands and allow for the release of hormones into the bloodstream.
Receptor molecules
Molecules on the cells of target organs that bind with hormones and trigger specific metabolic reactions.
Filtration barrier
The basement membrane in the kidneys that prevents important materials from being lost in urine.
Ultrafiltration
The process in the nephron where blood is filtered in the Bowman's capsule due to high blood pressure created by the afferent arteriole.
Podocytes
Cells in the Bowman's capsule that have feet-like structures and act as a barrier to prevent large proteins from being filtered.
Endothelial cells
Cells in the kidneys that regulate blood flow and act as a filtration barrier.
Saltatory conduction
The process of action potential "jumping" from one node of Ranvier to another due to the presence of a myelin sheath.
Plant hormones
Chemical substances that regulate plant growth and development.
Auxin
A plant hormone that promotes plant growth by loosening polysaccharides and cellulose myofibrils.
Gibberellin
A plant hormone that stimulates seed germination in the presence of water.
Abscisic acid
A plant hormone that induces bud and seed dormancy, acts as a stress hormone, and triggers the closing of stomata.
Sensory neurons
Neurons that transmit sensory information from sense organs to the central nervous system.
Intermediate neurons
Neurons that transmit information between sensory and motor neurons.
Motor neurons
Neurons that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Postsynaptic
Referring to the region of a synapse where the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor and generates an action potential.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons where information is transmitted through the release of neurotransmitters.
Roles of synapse
Transmit impulses, delay information to prevent overload, filter out low-level stimuli, prevent overstimulation, allow information integration, and provide flexibility of responses.
Striated muscle structure
The structure of skeletal muscle that includes sarcomeres, sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, T-tubules, and myofibrils.
Muscle contraction
The process by which muscles generate force and shorten in length.
Germination
The process by which a seed begins to grow and develop into a new plant.
Action potential
The change in electrical potential that occurs when a neuron is stimulated and transmits an impulse.
Resting potential
The electrical potential difference across the membrane of a neuron when it is not transmitting an impulse.
Depolarization
The phase of an action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes more positive due to the influx of sodium ions.
Repolarization
The phase of an action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less positive again due to the efflux of potassium ions.
Hyperpolarization
The phase of an action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes more negative than the resting potential.
Abscisic acid
A plant hormone that is synthesized in mature leaves, dormant seeds, ripe fruits, and seeds, and has roles in inducing bud and seed dormancy, acting as a stress hormone, and triggering the closing of stomata.
