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How many liters of blood does the average human have?
About 5 liters.
What are the main functions of blood?
Transport nutrients, oxygen, hormones; regulate fluid balance; defend against pathogens.
What is blood composed of?
Plasma and cellular components.
What percentage of plasma is water?
About 90%.
What do inorganic salts (electrolytes) in plasma do?
Buffer pH and regulate osmosis.
Name key plasma ions.
Calcium (Ca²⁺), Magnesium (Mg²⁺), Sodium (Na⁺).
What is the role of albumin in plasma?
Maintains osmotic balance.
What is the function of immunoglobulins?
Immune defense (antibodies).
What do apolipoproteins do?
Transport fats in the blood.
What is fibrinogen’s function?
Acts as a clotting factor.
Where are blood cells produced?
Bone marrow, from multipotent stem cells.
What is the structure of erythrocytes (RBCs)?
Biconcave, no nucleus or mitochondria, full of hemoglobin.
What is the function of red blood cells?
Transport oxygen efficiently.
What is the function of white blood cells (WBCs)?
Defend against infections and foreign substances.
What are platelets and their role?
Cell fragments essential for blood clotting.
What happens during platelet plug formation?
Platelets stick to exposed collagen and attract more platelets to form a plug.
What triggers fibrin clot formation?
A cascade involving clotting factors, Ca²⁺, prothrombin → thrombin → fibrinogen → fibrin.
What does fibrin do?
Forms long insoluble threads that reinforce the clot.
What is hemophilia?
A disorder where a clotting factor is missing → improper clotting.
What is a thrombus and why is it dangerous?
A blood clot that forms inside a vessel and can block blood flow → stroke or heart attack.
What does the immune system protect against?
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites.
What are the two major branches of the immune system?
Innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
What are the features of innate immunity?
Immediate, general, non-specific; includes barriers and general cellular responses.
What are the features of adaptive immunity?
Specific, acquired, has memory; involves B and T cells.
What are examples of barrier defenses?
Skin, mucous membranes, cilia, stomach acid, lysozymes.
What do toll-like receptors (TLRs) do?
Recognize pathogen molecules to trigger a response.
What do NK (Natural Killer) cells do?
Destroy infected or cancerous host cells by detecting abnormal surface proteins.
What are interferons?
Proteins produced by virus-infected cells to warn neighbors.
What is the complement system?
A group of ~30 proteins that lyse pathogens by forming membrane pores.
What triggers the inflammatory response?
Injury/infection → histamine and cytokine release → vasodilation and immune cell recruitment.
What are the signs of inflammation?
Redness, heat, swelling (edema), pain.
What is systemic inflammation and what does it lead to?
Body-wide response → fever to boost immune function.
Compare and Contrast: Cellular vs. Plasma Components of Blood [Origin, Physical form, Major Elements, Key function, Proteins Present, Which cells have role in immunity]
Feature | Cellular Components | Plasma Components |
---|---|---|
Origin | Bone marrow (from stem cells) | Liquid portion of blood |
Physical Form | Cells or cell fragments | Fluid (~90% water) |
Major Elements | RBCs, WBCs, Platelets | Water, ions, proteins, nutrients, hormones |
Key Functions | Oxygen transport, immunity, clotting | Transport, pH buffering, osmoregulation, clotting |
Proteins Present? | Minimal in cells | Albumin, immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, apolipoproteins |
Direct Role in Immunity? | WBCs involved directly | Immunoglobulins contribute |
Sequence: Process of Blood Clotting
Injury to Blood Vessel
→ Vessel constriction (vasoconstriction)
→ Exposure of collagen fibers
→ Platelet adhesion and plug formation
→ Release of chemical signals
→ Clotting cascade activation (factors + Ca²⁺)
→ Prothrombin → Thrombin
→ Thrombin converts fibrinogen → Fibrin
→ Fibrin mesh stabilizes clot
Compare and Contrast: Platelet Plug vs. Fibrin Clot Formation
Feature | Platelet Plug Formation | Fibrin Clot Formation |
---|---|---|
Timing | Immediate (seconds to minutes) | Delayed (minutes to hours) |
Trigger | Platelet contact with exposed collagen | Enzyme cascade + clotting factors |
Main Component | Platelets | Fibrin (from fibrinogen) |
Function | Temporarily plug the hole | Permanently seal and stabilize the clot |
Calcium & Vitamin K? | Not essential | Essential for cascade and thrombin formation |
Hypothesize/Diagnose: Impact of Variability on Blood Clotting
Variation / Deficiency | Possible Effect | Diagnosis / Outcome |
---|---|---|
Low Platelet Count | Impaired plug formation | Excessive bleeding, bruising |
Hemophilia (Missing Factor) | Cascade blocked → no fibrin clot | Cannot form stable clot → persistent bleeding |
Excess Clotting Factors | Clots without injury | Thrombus risk → stroke or heart attack |
Vitamin K Deficiency | Thrombin can't form | Bleeding disorders |
Calcium Deficiency | Clotting cascade impaired | Slower clot formation |
Compare and Contrast: Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity
Feature | Innate Immunity | Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity |
---|---|---|
Specificity | Non-specific | Pathogen-specific |
Response Time | Immediate | Delayed (days) |
Memory? | No | Yes |
Components | Skin, phagocytes, NK cells, complement | B cells, T cells, antibodies |
Duration | Short-term | Long-lasting immunity |
Present From Birth? | Yes | Develops after exposure |
Compare and Contrast: Barrier vs. Cellular Innate Defenses
Feature | Barrier Defenses | Cellular Defenses |
---|---|---|
Location | Body surfaces (external/internal) | Inside tissues and blood |
Example Structures | Skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid | Phagocytes, NK cells, interferons |
Always Active? | Yes | Activated when barrier is breached |
Type of Action | Physical/chemical prevention | Cellular response and pathogen destruction |
Sequence: Innate Immune Response (9)
Pathogen Entry
→ Breaches barrier defenses (e.g., skin, mucous membranes)
→ Recognized by toll-like receptors (TLRs)
→ Phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogen
→ NK cells destroy infected host cells
→ Interferons released (if virus present)
→ Complement system activated → pathogen lysis
→ Inflammatory response: vasodilation, cytokine release
→ Phagocytes rush in → pathogen cleared
Sequence: Vaccine Activity
Vaccination (Injection of Antigen or mRNA)
→ Antigen detected by immune system
→ B cells produce antibodies
→ T cells activated
→ Memory B and T cells formed
→ Future infection → rapid memory response
→ Faster elimination of actual pathogen