FRESHMAN HONORS BIOLOGY FINAL

Biotic

living factors that influence an ecosystem

Abiotic

non-living factors that influence an ecosystem and an organisms life. 

• Temperature

• Moisture

• Light

• Soil

Levels of Organization

• Living things may be studied on many different levels. Levels of organization range from simple to complex: 

  1. Cells 

  2. Tissues

  3. Organs

  4. Organ Systems

  5. Organisms

  6. Population

  7. Community

  8. Ecosystem

  9. Biosphere

Covalent bonds

•  formed when two elements share one or more electrons

Ionic bonds

formed when an electron is transferred from one atom to another

Hydrogen bonds

• the electromagnetic interaction of a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, such as nitrogen or oxygen

  • classified as weak bonds because they are easily and rapidly formed and broken under normal biological conditions

What are the parts of a chemical equation?

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

• A chemical equation includes:

  • Reactants and products

  • Arrow shows the direction of the process

  • The ratio and number of molecules involved.

6 Essential Elements for Life

Sulfur	S
Phosphorus	P
Oxygen	O
Nitrogen	N
Carbon	C
Hydrogen	H

SPONCH!!!!!!

Organic

• compounds that contain Carbon atoms that are covalently bonded to other elements, typically hydrogen, oxygen and other carbon atoms

• LIPIDS CARBOHYDRATES NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN

Lipids

• Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

• Structure: 3 fatty acid chains linked by a glycerol backbone

• Function: building blocks of the cell membrane and energy

  • LONG TERM ENERGY STORAGE

• Examples: cholesterol, fats. Fatty acids. Cell membranes

Carbohydrates

• Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

• Structure: monosaccharides (glucose molecules) bonded together in long chains called polysaccharides (starch)

• Function: key source of energy

  • Short term usable energy

• Examples: sugar and starch

Proteins

• Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

• Structure: amino acids are bonded in long chains that coil around each other into specific shapes called proteins

• Function: some proteins are enzymes (speed up reactions) some are structural (hair, muscle, skin, tendons etc…) and some are antibodies (protect body from infections)

• Examples: enzymes, collagen, antibodies

Nucleic Acids

• Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus 

• Structure: long chain of nucleotides bonded together

• Functions: some are DNA (store hereditary info) and some are RNA (aid in building proteins)

• Examples: DNA, RNA

Carbohydrates are made of…

simple sugars

Lipids are made of…

fatty acids

Nucleic acids are made of…

nucleotides

Proteins are made of…

Amino Acids

Function of carbohydrates

mains source of energy

Functions of lipids

• Stores Energy

• Part of membranes (keeps substances in & out)

Functions of nucleic acids

Stores and transmits genetic information

Functions of proteins

• Controls rates of reactions

• Forms bones and muscles

• Fights diseases

Enzymes

• proteins that act as catalysts and help complex reactions occur everywhere in life.

• Ends in “ase”

Factors affecting the function of an enzyme:

• pH

  • work well within very specific ranges

• Temperature

  • 98.6 degrees faranheit

What is a eukaryote?

A eukaryote is any organism consisting of one or more cells that contain DNA in a membrane-bound nucleus, separate from the cytoplasm.

Eukaryotes include:

• protists

• fungi

• plants

• animals
  
  All eukaryotic cells contain a large number of specialized, membrane-bound organelles. 

What is a prokaryote?

any organism – usually single-celled – whose DNA is suspended freely in the cytoplasm. The word means “before the nucleus”.

can be divided into two groups:

• bacteria

• archaea.

simpler structure than eukaryotes 

3 Domains and 6 Kingdoms

Blue Apes Exist

Every Angel Plays Flute Perfectly Always

Ribosome

Nickname: Protein factory

Function: Make proteins

Can be found alone in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Mitochondria

Nickname:  The Powerhouse

Function:  

• Energy formation. 

• Breaks down food to make ATP

ATP:  is the major fuel for all cell activities that require energy

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Function:  Internal production & delivery system of the cell. 

System of membranous channels

Rough ER is studded with ribosomes. Modifies & transports proteins. located in nucleus 

Smooth ER lacks ribosomes. Makes lipids and breaks down toxins. Located in cytoplasm

Golgi Apparatus

Nickname:  The Shippers

Function:  Packages, modifies, and transports proteins to different location inside/outside of the cell.

Appearance:  Stack of pancakes

Receives protein and also lipid-filled vesicles from the ER, packages, processes, and distributes them  within the cell or for export out of the cell (secretion).

Lysosomes

Nickname: Clean-up crew

Function: Break down food into particles the rest of the cell can use and to destroy old cells

Located in cytoplasm

Contain enzymes and are involved in intracellular digestion.

Facilitated Diffusion

Proteins assist in diffusion of molecules across plasma membrane.

From high to low concentration – requires no energy from cell

- Glucose, sodium ions and chloride ions are just a few examples of molecules and ions that must efficiently get across the plasma membrane but to which the lipid bilayer of the membrane is virtually impermeable. Their transport must therefore be "facilitated" by proteins that span the membrane and provide an alternative route or bypass.

Osmosis (passive transport)

- Diffusion of water across the plasma membrane.(partially permeable) in order to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides 

• Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells.

Moves from high to low. 

Requires no energy from cell

Tonicity

• is a measure of the osmotic pressure gradient  of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane. 

It is commonly used when describing the response of cells immersed in an external solution

Isotonic

no net movement of water between cell and environment

Hypertonic

A cell in a hypertonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes than its surroundings, leading to a decrease of water in the cell. Water will always move toward a  hypertonic environment!!

Hypotonic

A cell in a hypotonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes than the surrounding solution, causing water to flow into the cell.

Active Transport

how most molecules move across the plasma membrane.

Analogous to a pump moving water uphill. Uses energy from low to high

(ATP) drives substances across the plasma membrane with the aid of carrier molecules.

Analogous

biological features in different species that serve the same function but evolved independently, rather than from a shared evolutionary ancestor

Vacuole

Stores water

Structure of cell membranes

• primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids.

  • Lipids help to give membranes their flexibility

  • Proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane. 

Lipid Bilayer

Layer in cell membrane

2 layers of phospholipids

1. Phosphate head is polar (water loving)

2. Fatty acid tails are non-polar (water fearing)

3. Proteins embedded in membrane

Polar HEADS

LOVE water and dissolve

think about how polar bears love water!

non-polar TAILS

opposite of polar!

hide from water

whats in cell membrane

phospholipids

transport proteins

lipid bilayer

proteins

phospholipids

a class of amphipathic lipids that serve as the fundamental structural component of all cell membranes

Types of Cellular Transport

passive and active transport

passive transport

cell doesn’t use energy

1. Diffusion

2. Facilitated Diffusion

3. Osmosis

active transport

cell does use energy

1. Protein Pumps

2. Endocytosis

3. Exocytosis

3 Types of Passive Transport

1. Diffusion 

2. Facilitative Diffusion – diffusion with the help of transport proteins 

3. Osmosis – diffusion of water

Active Transport

• cell uses energy  (ATP) to actively move molecules to where they are needed

• Carrier proteins in the cell membrane

• Movement  from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration . Against the concentration gradient

  • Low 🡪 High concentration

Protein Pumps

help with active transport

transport proteins that require energy to do work

• Example: Sodium / Potassium Pumps are important in nerve responses.

it changes shape which requires protein!

Endocytosis

help active transport

taking bulky material into a cell 

• Uses energy

• Cell membrane in-folds around food particle

• “cell eating”

• forms food vacuole & digests food

• This is how white blood cells eat bacteria!

Exocytosis

helps with active transport

Forces material out of cell in bulk

• membrane surrounding the material fuses with cell membrane

• Cell changes shape – requires energy

• EX:  Hormones or wastes released from cell

Autotrophs

• Also called producers

• Use energy from the sun or chemicals to make organic food molecules (carbohydrates – glucose!)

  • Plants!

Heterotrophs

• Also called consumers

• Eat other organisms

  • US!

chemical formula of ATP

• ten carbon atoms, sixteen hydrogen, five nitrogen, thirteen oxygen and 3 phosphorus atoms. 

• The shorthand formula is C₁₀H₁₆N₅O₁₃P₃

How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

  By breaking the high- energy bonds between the last two phosphates in ATP

MAKING ATP

ATP is formed by ADP (adenosine and two phosphates) bonding with another phosphate. This bond stores the energy.

When the bond is broken the energy is released to be used by the cell

ADP can be reused to store more energy and released when required

When is ATP Made in the Body?

During a Process called Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration

• is the process that releases energy by breaking down food molecules in the presence of oxygen.

how many ATP molecules come from one glucose

38

Aerobic

• Glycolysis in cytoplasm

• With oxygen - mitochondria

• Produces up to 38ATP molecules

Anaerobic

• Glycolysis in cytoplasm

• No oxygen

• 2 ATP molecules

Function of cellular respiration

energy release

location of cellular respiration

mitchondria

What are the two types of cells?

1. Prokaryotic

2. Eukaryotic

Heterotrophs

• Heterotrophs are the consumers in the food chain, particularly the herbivores are the consumers in the food chain, particularly the herbivores, carnivores are the consumers in the food chain, particularly the herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. 

• All animals, some fungi and most bacteria are heterotrophs. 

• They are not capable of producing their own food. Therefore, they obtain their energy requirements by feeding on organic matter or another organism.

Gene

a segment of DNA that codes for a protein, which in turn codes for a trait (skin tone, eye color..etc), a gene is a stretch of DNA.

Nucleotide

consists of a sugar, phosphate and a base

Organization of DNA

• Chromatin = combination of DNA and proteins that make up the contents of the nucleus of a cell.

• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes

Prokaryotic means

before a nucleus

Eukaryotic

possessing a true nucleus

waston and crick

1953

determined structure of DNA

shape of dna

double helix

sub-units of DNA

nucleotides

RNA

• DNA remains in the nucleus, but in order for it to get its instructions translated into proteins, it must send its message to the ribosomes, where proteins are made. The chemical used to carry this message is Messenger RNA

• RNA = ribonucleic acid.

• RNA is similar to DNA except:

• 1. has one strand instead of two strands.
  2. has uracil instead of thymine
  3. has ribose instead of deoxyribose

• mRNA has the job of taking the message from the DNA to the nucleus to the ribosomes.

Transcription

• RNA is made from DNA

Translation

• Proteins are made from the message on the RNA

chromosome

compact spool of DNA

how many chromosomes do humans have

46

23 from mom

23 from dad

diploid cells

two daughter cells that come from mitosis

centromere

attached part of the “sister” chromatids

chromatids

each “noodle” of a chromosome

Mitosis

division of the nucleus into 2 nuclei, each with the same number of chromosomes 

• Mitosis occurs in all the somatic (body) cells

happens so each daughter cell can have a complete set of CHROMOSOMES in the nucleus

PMAT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Cell Cycle

series of events cells go through as they grow and divide

• Cell grows, prepares for division, then divides to form 2 daughter cells – each of which then begins the cycle again

the WHOLE cell cycle is an extended version of PMAT. it is IPMATC

Interphase

period of cell growth and development

• DNA replication (copying) occurs during Interphase

• During Interphase the cell also grows, carries out normal cell activities, replicates all other organelles

• The cell spends most of its life cycle in Interphase

Prophase

• Longest part of Mitosis

• Chromosomes become visible

• Centrioles near the nuclear envelope move toward opposite poles

• Spindle fibers form 

• Condensed chromosomes become attached to spindle fibers at their centromeres

• Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down

Metaphase (middle)

• Chromosomes line up across the center of the cell (metaphase plate)

• Spindle fibers  connect to chromosomes 

Anaphase

(apart)

• Chromosome copies divide 

• Centromeres split

•  move toward opposite sides of the cell 

- (pulled by spindle fibers)

Telophase

(two)

• Chromosomes uncoil

• Nuclear envelope re-forms

  • 2 New nuclei are formed

• Spindle fibers disappear

• Mitosis is complete

Cytokinesis

the division of the rest of the cell (cytoplasm and organelles) after the nucleus divides

• After mitosis and cytokinesis, the cell returns to Interphase to continue to grow and perform regular cell activities

Karyotype

that picture of chromosomes

this one:

Autosome

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

homozygous

Organisms that have 2 identical alleles for a particular trait

TT or tt

just think that homozygous has two O’s and alleles are homozygous have two of the same letter

heterozygous

 2 different alleles for a particular trait

Pp

The beginning of reproduction

• 2 haploid gametes (egg and sperm) join together during fertilization.

• The result is a fertilized egg called a zygote which is diploid.

• Humans have 46 chromosomes

haploid

a cell or organism that contains a single, unpaired set of chromosomes

zygote

AKA DIPLOID

fertilized egg

XY chromosome

male