hawk tuah anatomy

Autonomic nervous system function

The part of the peripheral nervous system. including heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, salivation, perspiration, pupillary dilation, urination, sexual arousal, breathing and swallowing.

Somatic efferent system function

The part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system structure

ANS innervation is divided into sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system divisions. The sympathetic division has "outflow", meaning that the neurons begin at the thoracic and lumbar portions of the spinal cord. The parasympathetic division has "outflow", meaning that the neurons begin at the cranial nerves and sacral spinal cord.

Somatic efferent system structure

Consists of afferent and efferent nerves. Afferent nerves are responsible for relaying sensation to the central nervous system. Efferent nerves are responsible for stimulating muscle contraction, including all the non-sensory neurons connected with skeletal muscles and skin.

Dual innervation

One organ can receive impulses from both sympathetic and parasympathetic motor neurons. One division increases activity of organ, other division decreases activity of organ. While some organs are innervated by just one division, most vital organs receive dual innervation which means they receive instructions from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic nervous system

Comprise the autonomic nervous system. Its general action is to mobilize the body in a fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed". Activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, tears, urination, digestion, and defecation.

Emotions on the autonomic nervous system

Plays a major part in emotional experience and expression. When you are emotionally excited, the body shows many changes: blood pressure and heart beat increase, mouth is often dry, stomach has "butterflies" in it. These and other body actions are controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

Protection, Body temperature regulation, excretion, Production of vitamin D, Sensory reception

Functions of the integumentary system

Epidermis (on the skin)

A keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that contains four distinct types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile epithelial cells, and dendritic cells.

Dermis

A strong, flexible connective tissue. The cells are typical fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and scattered white blood cells. Consists of two regions: papillary and reticular.

Stratum basale

The deepest epidermal layer, is firmly attached to the underlying dermis along a wavy borderline. It consists of a single row of cells, mostly stem cells representing the youngest keratinocytes.

Stratum spinosum

Several cell layers think where mitosis occurs. This layer gets its name from the many spine like extensions of its keratinocytes.

Stratum granulosum

This thin layer consists of one to five layers of flattened keratinocytes. Contain a waterproofing glycolipid that is secreted into the extracellular space and plays role in slowing water loss across epidermis.

Stratum lucidum

Occurs in think skin but not in thin skin. A thin translucent band which consist of a few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes.

Stratum corneum

The most external part of the epidermis, this layer is many cells think. it is much thicker in thick skin than in thin skin. Flat sacs completely filled with keratin.

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale. (Cute Ladies Get Sexy Boys)

Layers of the epidermis in order top to bottom

Hair follicles

The deep end is expanded. It is used as a sensory function. It extends from the epidermal surface into the dermis.

Hair

A flexible strand made of dead cells filled with hard keratin. It was mainly used as a thermal regulation.

Sebaceous glands

The skin's oil glands. They occur over the entire body, except on the palms and soles. Three leaf clover shape simple branched alveolar.

Sudoriferous glands (apocrine)

Sweat glands. Provides nutrients for bacteria on the skin: the bacteria's decomposition of sweat is what creates the acrid odor. Contains pheromone to attract opposite sex

Sudoriferous glands (eccrine)

Sweat glands. Thermoregulation, Excretion, and Protection.

Nails

Scalelike modification of the epidermis. Built-in tools that enable us to pick up small objects and scratch the skin when it itches.

Ceruminous glands

Specialized sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) located subcutaneously in the external auditory canal. Keeps the eardrum pliable, lubricates and cleans the external auditory canal, waterproofs the canal, kills bacteria, and serves as a barrier to trap foreign particles

Abduction of the arm

Supraspinatus, deltoid

Adduction of the arm

Pectoralis major, Latissimus dorsi, Teres major

Flexion of the elbow

Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis

Extension of the elbow

Triceps Brachii, Anconeus

Flexion of the wrist

Flexor carpi radialis, Palmaris longus, Flexor carpi ulnaris

Extension of the wrist

Extensor carpi radialis longus, Extensor carpi radialis brevis

Extension of the digits

Extensor digitorum, Extensor pollicis brevis, Extensor digitorum longus

Flexion of the hip

Rectus femoris, Sartorius

Flexion of the digits

Flexor digitorum, Flexor digitorum profundus

Extension of the hip

Gluteus maximus, Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps femoris

Abduction of the thigh

Tensor fasciae latae, Sartorius, Gluteus medius, Gluteus minimus

Adduction of the thigh

Pectineus, Adductor longus, Gracilis, Adductor magnus

Extension of the knee

Vastus lateralis, Vastus medialis, Rectus femoris, Vastus intermedius

Flexion of the knee

Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps femoris

Dorsiflexion of the foot

Tibialis anterior

Plantar flexion of the foot

Gastrocnemius, Soleus, Fibularis (peroneus) longus, Fibularis (peroneus) brevis

How does the nervous system maintain homeostasis?

By controlling and regulating the other parts of the body.

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy the cranium and the vertebral canal. It is the integrating and command center of the nervous system: it receives incoming sensory signals, interprets these signals, and dictates motor responses based on past experiences, reflexes, and current condition.

Peripheral Nervous System

Consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain, whereas spinal nerves carry signals to and from the spinal cord. It serves as a communication lines that link all regions of the body to the central nervous system. Includes ganglia- areas where the cell bodies of neurons are clustered.

Sensory Neurons (afferent)

A neuron conducting sensory information from a receptor cell or organ in the form of nerve impulses inwards to nerve centers in the brain or spinal cord (central nervous system). Typically a bipolar neuron or unipolar.

Motor Neurons (efferent)

A neuron which conveys impulses outward from the brain or spinal cord (central nervous system) to regulate the action of a muscle, gland, or other effector tissue. Multipolar neuron.

Interneurons (association neuron)

A nerve cell found entirely within the central nervous system that acts as a link between sensory neurons and motor neurons or connects with other interneurons in a network or pathway within the CNS. Most commonly a multipolar neuron.

Function of neuroglia = glia = glial cells

The sustentactular tissue that surrounds, provides mechanical and physical support for, helps convey nourishment to, and provides electrical insulation for, neurons in the CNS; glial and neural cells (neurons) together compose the tissue of the CNS; they develop from embryonic ectoderm.

How do neurons generate a resting potential?

When a neuron is at rest, the plasma membrane is far more permeable to potassium ions than to other ions present, such as sodium and chloride. The electrochemical equilibrium that results from the distribution of these ion species across the membrane, together with the relative permeabilities of each ion, is responsible for the -60mV charge that can be measured across the membrane. This charge is called the resting membrane potential.

How do neurons generate an action potential?

Generated by special types of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in a cell's plasma membrane. These channels are shut when the membrane potential is near the resting potential of the cell, but they rapidly begin to open if the membrane potential increases to a precisely defined threshold value.

How the resting potential is reestablished after an action potential

As the sodium channels close, sodium ions can no longer enter the neuron, and then they are actively transported back out of the plasma membrane. Potassium channels are then activated, and there is an outward current of potassium ions, returning the electrochemical gradient to the resting state. After an action potential has occurred, there is a transient negative shift, called the afterhyperpolarization or refractory period, due to additional potassium currents. This is the mechanism that prevents an action potential from traveling back the way it just came.

Chemically-gated ion channels

A group of transmembrane ion channel proteins which open to allow ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, or Cl- to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e. a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter. Most abundant on the dendrites and cell body of a neuron, the areas where most synaptic communication occurs.

Voltage-gated ion channels

These types of ion channels are especially critical in neurons, but are common in many types of cells.

They have a crucial role in excitable neuronal and muscle tissues, allowing a rapid and co-ordinated depolarization in response to triggering voltage change.

How chemical synapses operate

Specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system. They are crucial to the biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow the nervous system to connect to and control other systems of the body.

Basic anatomy of chemical synapse

The presynaptic neuron is separated from the postsynaptic neuron by a narrow, water-filled space called the synaptic cleft.

Role of neurotransmitter

The brain chemicals that communicate information throughout our brain and body. They relay signals between nerve cells, called "neurons." The brain uses neurotransmitters to tell your heart to beat, your lungs to breathe, and your stomach to digest. They can also affect mood, sleep, concentration, weight, and can cause adverse symptoms when they are out of balance.

Lymphatic capillaries

Highly permeable vessels that collect the excess tissue fluid and are located near blood capillaries in the loose areolar connective tissue.

Circulatory capillaries

Surrounded by areolar connective tissue that contains tissue fluid. Carry blood from small arterioles to small venules

Adaptations which enable lymphatic capillaries to absorb tissue fluid.

Bundles of collagen filaments anchor the endothelial cells to the surrounding connective tissue. As a result, any increase in the tissue fluid's volume separates the minivalve flaps, opening gaps in the wall and allowing fluid to enter

Lymphatic collecting vessels

Thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph. Lined by endothelial cells, and have a thin layer of smooth muscles, and adventitia that bind the lymph vessels to the surrounding tissue.

Lymphatic trunks

Surrounded by a fibrous capsule of dense connective tissue. After leaving the lymph nodes, the largest collecting lymphatic vessels converge to form what?

Order in which lymph fluid travels to the circulatory system

Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic collecting vessels, lymph nodes, lymph trunks, lymph ducts, subclavian veins at the root of the neck

Gross anatomy of lymph nodes

Cleanse the pathogens, bean-shaped organs situated along collecting lymphatic vessels. Located in the cervical, axillary, and inguinal regions.

Afferent lymphatic vessels

Carry unfiltered lymph into the node where waste products and some of the fluid are then filtered out

Efferent lymphatic vessels

Carry the filtered lymph out of the node to continue its return to the circulatory system

Capsule

Composed of dense irregular connective tissue and smooth muscle fibers; contractive activity occurs here

Stroma

Supports lymphoid organs

Cortical sinuses

Fiber network where macrophages live; macrophages consume pathogens and foreign particles in the lymph

Medullary cords

Clusters of lymphocytes within the medulla that contain T and B lymphocytes and plasma cells

Gross anatomy of the spleen

Soft and blood-rich. Its size varies but on average is the size of your fist. It is shaped like a jellyfish and has a concave anterior surface. Lies in the superior left part of the abdominal cavity

Red pulp

Surrounds the white pulp. Responsible for the spleen's ability to dispose of worn-out blood cells. Contains splenic sinusoids and splenic cords.

White pulp

Contains large numbers of lymphocytes, forms periarteriolar lymphatic sheaths and lymphatic nodules around blood vessels entering the spleen. Provides immune function of the spleen

Thymus

Two lobed. Its tissue framework is not a true lymphoid connective tissue (it consists of epithelial cells rather than reticular fibers). Lies in the superior thorax and inferior neck, just posterior to the sternum.

Tonsil

It is a mere swelling of the mucosa lining in the pharynx. The swelling consists of an epithelium underlain by a connective tissue lamina propria

Peyer's patches

Aggregated lymphoid nodules

Clusters of lymphoid follicles in the walls of the distal part of the small intestine

Long Bone

This bone is longer than wide and has a shaft plus two distinct ends. Humerus, fingers, and toes.

Short bone

Roughly cube-shaped. Occur in wrist and the ankle.

Flat Bone

Thin and curved. Two plates of compact bone separated by a layer of spongy bone. Most cranial bones, ribs, and sternum.

Irregular bone

Various shaped bones. Examples are vertebrae and hip bones.

Sesamoid bone

Formed within a tendon. Example would be the patella. Act to alter the direction of pull of a tendon or reduce friction.

Sutural (Wormian) Bone

Small bones irregular in shape, size, and location, and not all people have them. Develop between the major cranial bones during the fetal period. Significance is unknown.

Condyle

Surfaces that form joints. Rounded articular projection, often articulates with a corresponding fossa. Rib and Mandible.

Epicondyle

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment. Raised area on or above a condyle. Vertebra, Coxal, and femur

Tubercle

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment.Small rounded projection or process. Vertebra, Coxal, and femur

Tuberosity

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment. Large rounded projection; may be roughened. Vertebra, Coxal, and femur

Foramen

Depressions and openings for passage of vessels and nerves. Round or oval opening through a bone. Skull

Meatus

Depressions and openings for passage of vessels and nerves. Canal-like passageway. Skull

Fossa

Depressions and openings for passage of vessels and nerves. Shallow basin like depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface. Skull

Fissure

Depressions and openings for passage of vessels and nerves. Narrow, slitlike opening. Skull

Process

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment. Any bony prominence. Vertebra, Coxal, and femur

The skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

Which bones are found in the axial skeleton.

Cervical vertebrae: 7, Thoracic vertebrae: 12, Lumbar vertebrae: 5, Sacrum and coccyx: 9

Subdivisions of the spinal column and how many vertebrae in each division.

Scoliosis (twisted disease)

An abnormal lateral curvature of more than 10 degrees that occurs most often in the thoracic region.

Kyphosis (humped disease)

An exaggerated thoracic curvature that is most common in aged women because it often results from spinal fractures that follow osteoporosis.

Lordosis (bent-backward disease)

An accentuated lumbar curvature which can result from spinal tuberculosis.

Pectoral Girdles, Arms and forearms, Hands, Pelvis, Thighs and legs, Feet and ankles.

Bones in the appendicular skeleton.

Right and left Clavicle and Scapula

Bones in pectoral girdle

Left and right hip bones

Bones in the pelvic girdle

Humerus, Radius, Ulna, and hand. Shoulder

Bones in upper extremities.