Anatomy Exam One

Define homeostasis

The “overall job” of every system in the body

Condition of equilibrium(balance) in the body’s internal environment

Many processes working together to maintain internal conditions at their set points

Examples: body temp, blood glucose, internal PH

What temperature should the body be at internally?

98.6 degrees F

why do we have feedback and feedback systems

To maintain homeostasis

After the effectors do their job, there is a return to homeostasis when the response changes the controlled condition (stimulus that disrupts homeostasis) back to normal set point

List the 3 components of a feedback system

Receptor

Control Center

Effectors

define Receptor Control Center Effectors in a feedback system

Receptor: detects a change in the body from a stimulus and sends input to the control center (nerve impulses or chemical signals)

Control Center: receives input from receptors and decides if it needs to provides an output by signaling effectors to work through nerve impulses or chemical signals

Effectors: bring about change to bring the body back to homeostasis or the set point

define positive and negative feedback

negative: the response of the system is in the opposite direction of the stimulus to bring it back to set point/homeostaissi; the response negates the stimulus; MORE COMMON

positive: the response of the system is in the same direction of the stimulus; the response reinforces the effect of the stimulus; LESS COMMON

Example of negative feedback with receptor, control center, and effectors

blood pressure increasing

receptors: baroreceptors in blood vessels send nerve impulses to the brain for input

control center: brain sends nerve impulses for output

effectors: heart receives output and decreases heart rate which decreases blood pressure (heart and blood vessels)

Example of postive feedback with receptor, control center, and effectors

giving birth and having contractions increase the stretching of the cervix

receptors: stretch-sensitive nerve cells in the cervix send nerve impulses to the brain for input

control center: brain sends oxytocin for output

effectors: receive output, and muscles in the wall of the uterus contract more forcefully, which makes the baby’s head stretch the cervix more

**** Interruption of cycle when baby is born and stops stretching cervix

is blood clotting pos or neg feedback

pos

why study anaotmy and physiology

Understand the normal structure and function of the body

Understand abnormal or incorrect functions

Understand that pathophysiology is the study of how normal body functions change when a person has a disease or an injury

Understand the mechanism of therapies used to treat dysfunction

Identify targets for new therapies

What are the 6 levels of organization in the body, and what are the simplest and most complex levels

1. chemical level(simplest)

2. cellular level

3. tissue level

4. organ level

5. system level

6. organism level (most complex)

A person’s body temperature fluctuates within

a homeostatic range that centers around

98.6˚F. If body temperature rises,

thermoreceptors send a message to the

hypothalamus, which initiates vasodilation in

the skin, as well as sweating. Both these

actions function to release heat from the blood

to the atmosphere, thus reducing body

temperature.

what is the receptor, control center, and the effector

receptor: thermoreceptors

control center: hypothalamus

effector: vasodilation in the skin/skin cells

A person stands up quickly, causing blood

to drain away from the upper body and

resulting in a decrease in blood pressure in

the large vessels near the heart.

Baroreceptors in these large vessels detect

the change in blood pressure and send

signals to the cardiac center in the brain.

The cardiac center sends signals to

increase heart rate, increasing the amount

of blood being pumped by the heart and

increasing blood pressure.

what is the receptor, control center, and the effector and is the POS or NEG

NEG

receptor: baroreceptors

control center: cardiac center in the brain

effector: heart increasing HR

what would graph of negtaive feedback mechainsm look like

sin wave with the x-axis being the set point

every change always has an opposite reaction to get back to the set point/x axis

what dose a postive feedback mechanism graph look like

a linear positive sloped line that keeps increasing till a climatic event and then it will tun down and have a negative slope

Identify the major chemical elements found in the human body that make up 98.5%

O

C

H

N

Ca

P

Distinguish among the structures of atoms, ions, molecules, free radicals, and compounds

atoms: nucleus with +protons and no change in neutrons, surrounded by -electron shells with the valence electrons in the last shell

ions: charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons and can be a single atom with a charge like Na+ or it can be a group of atoms like PO43-. This happens because of ionization: when elements with 1-3 valence electrons give them up (get a positive charge to be a cation) to elements with 7-8 electrons gain more and get a negative charge to be an anion

molecules: are chemical particles composed of 2 or more atoms united by a chemical bond O2 N2 or CO2 C6H12O6

free radicals: are unstable, highly reactive chemical particles with an odd number of electrons and are represented with a dot. They are short-lived and destroy cells ex; cancer and myocardial infarction. antioxidant is a chemical that neutralizes free radicals in the body natrually

compounds: molecules composed of 2 or more elements CO2

how to identify the number of valence electrons in a given element, from its place on the periodic table of elements

look at colume its in (group number)

1=1

2=2

13=3

14=4

15=5

16=6

17=7

18=8

Distinguish among the kinds of bonds formed among atoms / molecules:

o Ionic

o Covalent

o Hydrogen

o Ionic: relatively weak attraction between anion and cation and easily disrupted in water. ionic compounds are metal + nonmetal, pretty strong against temp but not against water

o Covalent: sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between nuclei

** can be single or double(shares 2 electrons)

** can be nonpolar(equally shared bery strong) or polar(unequally shared b/c more attracted to electornegative atom(O in water))

o Hydrogen: weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. helpful for 3D folding or coiling in proteins and DNA and eaily disrupted by temp and pH changes

Define the term, “chemical reaction,”

a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken

how to identify products and reactants in a given reaction

reactants on the left

products on the right

arrow from reactants to products

Describe the role of activation energy and catalysts in chemical reactions

The energy needed to get the reaction started

A catalyst decreases the activation energy required to start the reaction so the reaction can happen faster

Describe the bonds present within water molecules

Polar covalent bonds between H and O

It is V-shaped with a 105-degree bond angle

The whole molecule is polar because of a slightly negative charge on O and a slightly positive charge on H

Partial charges allow water to form hydrogen bonds between the positive H of one water molecule and the negative O of another water molecule

what are the properties of water

a. Water is critically important in living systems

b. Water is an excellent solvent

c. Water dissolves polar substances

solvency: ability to dissolve other chemicals because its the universal solvent and good because it can transport substances in the body

cohesion: tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other (hydrogen bonding)(surface film held together by surface tension)

adhesion: tendency of one substance to stick to another

chemical reactivity: ability to participate in chemical reactions by ionizing acids, salts, and bases and itself into H+ and OH- for hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis

thermal stability: helps stabilize the internal temp of the body because water has a high heat capacity of one calorie (amount of heat it takes to raise the temp of 1 gram of water to 1 degree C) hydrogen bonds hold water together so it is more resistant to movement from temp changes. Also a good coolant because when it vaporizes, it carries lots of heat with it

Define, “acid,” “base,” and distinguish between them

Acids are proton donors that dissociate to release H+” ions, decrease the pH

Bases are proton acceptors that dissociate into OH- ions, which bond with H+ to form water and increase the pH (dose not need to be a OH- donor; it just needs to take up H+ for example NH3 goes to NH4+)

what dose an acidic mixture look like

what dose an basic mixture look like

acidic: high concentration of H+, 1×10^0 to 1×10^-6.9, low pH, high acidity

basic: low concentarion of H+, 1×10^-14 to 1×10^-7.1, high pH, basic, high OH- concentration

** H+ concentration + OH- concentration need to add to 1×10^-14

so exponents need to add to -14

pH of -log[1×10^-3]

3

Define pH and be able to determine the relationship between pH and H+ concentration (ie, be able to calculate pH from a given H+ concentration and vice versa)

pH is a way to express the concentration of H+ in a solution

pH = - log [H+]

low pH= high H+ concentration 10^0 H+ and 10^-14 OH-

high pH= lower h+ concentration 10^-14 H+ and 10^-0 OH-

at neutral pH=7 and 10^-7 of H+ and OH-

Define the term, “buffer,” and describe the role of buffer systems in homeostasis

Important in maintaining the internal pH at a constant level

Act by ‘tying up’ excess H+ and OH-, preventing them from changing the pH

Does this by breaking down into substances that pick up H+ or OH- (can do both)

Buffers are mixtures of weak acids or bases and their corresponding salt

weak acids have more/less dissocation inot ions than strong acids

less double arrow

strong acids completely dissociate single arrow

example of buffer

H2CO3 <—> HCO3- + H+

HCO3- bonds to H+ to make solutions less acidic

H+ bonds to OH- to make solutions more neutral /less acidic

name 7 functional groups of organic molecules

Functional groups give the molecule different properties

hydroxy

sulfhydryl

carbonyl

carboxyl

ester

phosphate

amino

hydroxyl

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: —OH

name: alcohols

polar

hydrophilic b/c its electronegative O

R—O—H

molecules with many —OH groups dissolve easily in water

sulfhydryl

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: —SH

name: thiols

polar

hydrophilic b/ci its electronegative S

R—S—H

Certain amino acids have this —SH which helps stablized the shape of proteins

carbonyl

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: OO or OOH

types: Ketones(middle) or aldehydes(end)

polar

hydrophilic b/c its electronegative O

O= O=

R—C—R. or. R—C—R

carboxyl

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: —COOH

name: carboxylic acids(end)

polar

hydrophilic

O=

R—C—O-

amino acids have —COOH at one end and the negatively charged form predominates at the pH of the body cells

ester

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: COOO

name: esters

polar ish

hydroneutroal netiher

O=

R—C—O—R

Predominant in dietary fats and oils, and in our body found in triglycerides

ex: aspirin

phosphate

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: -PO4^2-

name/s: phosphates

polar

very hydrophilic b/c dual negative charges

O=

R—O—P—O^-

O^--

ex: ATP

amino

group

name/s

polar/nonpolar

hydrophobic/hydrophilic

what does it look like

group: —NH₂

name: amines

polar

hydrophilic

—H —H

R—N or. R—N⁺—H

—H —H

can act as a base and pick up H+ to give the amino group a postive charge

most amino groups have a charge of 1+

all amino acids have an amino group at one end

3 types/sizes of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

disaccharides

polysaccharides

function of carbs

Provide energy and produce energy: carbohydrates are sources of energy that can quickly be mobilized; all is ultimately converted to glucose, and glucose is oxidized to make ATP

Acts as a signal molecule: attaches to proteins/lipids in the membrane

Contribute to the structure and function of DNA/RNA

what is hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis and carb example

Hydrolysis: a chemical reaction where water breaks down a compound's chemical bonds (ex: glycosidic bond in the disaccharide sucrose is broken by addition of H2O and the O gets an H and goes with fructose, and the OH goes to the glucose) sucks up water and breaks

Dehydration: Dehydration synthesis is a chemical reaction that joins smaller molecules (monomers) together to build larger molecules (polymers) while releasing a molecule of water (ex: glucose and fructose for a glycosidic bond by sharing an O but the extra H and OH get left off and water is a byproduct) water pushed out to make bond

when is a dimer

chemical structure or molecule formed by joining two smaller units called monomers

what is the structure of glycogen and why is it important

Branched polysaccharides of glucose monomers that are made by all animals

Branched because it can be broken down through hydrolysis faster, because there are more end points to break off glucose and raise blood sugar quickly

can sugar break apart in water though hydrolysis spontaneously

no it needs an enzyme, sucrase, because it is not a salt so it does not have ionic bonds that break in water

water will dissolve it and create a hydration sphere around it

what is shape and funtional groups are in carbohydrate and where are they

6 carbon ring with

Hydroxyl around edges: OH

aldehyde or a ketone carbonyl group =O in the ring

discribe lipids

Hydrophobic organic molecules composed of only C H O, with a high ratio of H and O

are less oxidized than carbs and have more calories per gram

very variable in structure

types of lipids and one special one

saturated: are straight and stack to they are solid at room temp

unsaturated: have at least one carbon-carbon double bond so it kinks and is liquid at room temp

phospholipids: polar head w/phosphate group and nonpolar tail with a kink

triglyceride: palmitic acid(saturated) + steric acid (saturated) + oleic acid(unstaurated)

cholesterol: hydroxyl group and hydrocarbon tail and 4 rings

estradiol: estrogen or female sex hormone

testosterone: male sex hormone

what is a fatty acid and 2 types

chain of 4 to 24 carbons with a carboxyl group at one end and a methyl group at the other

saturated: has as much hydrogen as it can carry; all single c-c bonds

stack nicely, so solid at room temp

unsaturated: could carry more hydrogen, but since there are c=c double bonds, each c dose not hold as many hydrogens as it could

double bonds make kinks so they dont stack nicely and will be liquid at room temp

what is a hydrogenated oil

when they pump H’s into unsaturated fats to make them solid at room temp

strucutre of triglyceride

1 glycerol with 3 carbons, and each carbon has an ester linkage to a fatty acid

palmitic acid(saturated) + steric acid (saturated) + oleic acid(unstaurated)

the glycerol is polar, and the fatty acids are nonpolar

what is an ester linkage and what type of lipids have them

triglyceride

A covalent bond formed between the hydroxyl group (-OH) of a glycerol molecule and the carboxyl group (-COOH. / =O) of a fatty acid

what would monoglyceride and diglycerides look like

1 glycerol with 3 carbons and each carbon has an ester linkage to a fatty acid 1 or 2 faty acids

triglyceride functional groups

hydroxyl group (-OH) of a glycerol molecule and the carboxyl group (-COOH. / =O) of a fatty acid

where ester linkage is

phospholipids structure

1 glycerol with 3 carbons

On 2 of the carbons, there are 2 ester linkages to 2 fatty acids and one of them is unsaturated with a kink(helps fluidity)

on the 3rd carbon, there is a phosphate group and then an amino or other polar funtional group attached

polarity of phospholipids

Head is polar b/c of the phosphate group and functional group

Tails are nonpolar b/c of fatty acid tails

overall it is amphipathic

what is a steroid and what are 4 types

lipid with 4 rings

Cholesterol

estradiol

testosterone

cortisol

why is Cholesterol not all bad

it is used to make other important hormones like estradiol, testosterone, and cortisol

it helps increase membranse fluidity

7 functions of proteins

• Structure of cells and tissues (filaments, adhesion molecules)

• Communication (as hormones or other signaling molecules)

• Receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters

• Transporters for substances in / out of cell

• Enzymes

• Markers that identify cells to other cells

• Other protective functions like immunoglobulins, antibodies, clotting

muscular movement

4 representative amino acids

tyrosine

glycine

cysteine

lysine

what is hydrolysis and dehydration with protein example

Hydrolysis: a chemical reaction where water breaks down a compound's chemical bonds (ex: peptide bond in the dipeptide glycylanlanine is broken by the addition of H2O; the OH and goes with glycine, and the H goes to the alanine) sucks up water and breaks

Dehydration: Dehydration synthesis is a chemical reaction that joins smaller molecules (monomers) together to build larger molecules (polymers) while releasing a molecule of water (ex: glycine and alanine form a peptide bond but the extra OH from glycine’s carboxyl groups is taken off and addded to the H from alanines amine group and water is a byproduct) water pushed out to make bond

where dose the 2H’s and O come from during proteins dehydraion synthesis and hydrolysis when forming and breaking peptide bonds

OH from the carboxyl group on one amino acid is taken off and added to the H from the other amino acid’s amine group

we have __ amino acids

20

structure/functional groups of a amnio acid

-R

amine group(NH3) + C + carboxyl(OH and =O)

-H

NCC

amine

carboxyl

central carbon

R group

what is the strucutre of a polypeptide chain

R =O R =O R =O

NCC -peptide bond- NCC -peptide bond- NCC

Start end is the amine side (left)

end end is the carboxyl side (right)

define Peptide

any molecules composed of 2 or more amino acids joined by a peptide bond though dehydration synthesis

primary and secondary structure of proteins

Primary: string of amino acids held together by peptide bonds (polypeptide chain)

Secondary: twisting and folding of neighboring amino acids that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds (forms an alpha helix or beta-pleated sheets)

and quatenerary strucutre of proteins

tertiary: when folded into a globular shape due to hydrophobic R's; also van der Waals forces help stabilize the 2 types of shapes

goloburar protiens

cysteine R group of --CH2--SH helps stabilize by making disulfide bridges that look like --S--S--

quaternary: association of 2 or more polypeptide chains by noncovalent forces like ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions

only for some

ex: hemoglobin: 2 alpha helix and 2 beta longer chains and 4 complex iron rings called a heme moiety

what are the components of nucleotides

phophate group backbone + deoxyribose sugar backbone + nitrogenous base to connect to other side of helix

how to enzymes speed up reactions

they decrease activation energy and are not used up in the reaction

help substrates postions so they form bond or break them readily

enzyme substate specificity:

only sucrase can digest sucrose and it can't digest anythign elese its a lock-and-key

what are the 4 nitrogenous bases and the pairs and how many bonds

thymine 2 H bonds to adenine

cytosine 3 H bonds to guanine

what are purines and pyrimidines

Purines feature a two-ring structure: AG

Pyrimidines possess a single ring: CT

Describe the structure of DNA

Has 2 strands of polynucleotide or a nucleic acid strands that are in a double helix and connect base on the nitrogen base pairs on inside and on the outside have a sugar phospate backbone

Describe the function of DNA

Functions: It constitutes our genes; it gives instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins, is passed down to future generations

what funtional groups up a nucleotide

phosphate group —- deoxyribose sugar —- one of the nitrogen bases

single or double nitrogen ring called a nitrogenous base

a monosaccharide

one or more phosphate groups

Describe the structure and functions of RNA

Polynucleotide or stand of nucleotides

RNA ribonucleic acid is a little shorter and carries DNAs instructions and synthesizes proteins by assembly amino acids the in right order to make proteins

Describe the structure ATP

adenosine triphosphate overall

adenine + ribose + 3 phosphate groups

adenosine + ribose = adenosine

the phospahte group have high energy bonds ~ between them selves

function of ATP

Gains energy from exergonic reactions like glucose oxidation and releases it within seconds for physiological work like polymerization

what is structure of ADP

adenosine diphosphate

adenine + ribose + 2 phosphate groups

adenosine + ribose = adenosine

going from ATP to ADP and releasing Pi is the most common way to release energy and then Pi can be added to enzyme or other molecules to activate them via phosphorylation by kinase enzymes

what is Cyclic adenosine monophosphate cAMP

nucleotide formed by the removal of the 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups from ATP

First, a chemical messenger makes ATP --> cAMP, then cAMP acts as a second messenger to active metaboilc effects

5 types of chemical reactions and explain

synthesis (anabolism): 2 or more small molecules combine to form a larger one A + B —> C. (amino acids into protien)

decomposition (catabolism): large molecules break into 2 or more smaller ones AB —> A + B. (ex: statch to glucose)

exchange: 2 molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms AB + CD —> AC + BD

reversible: can go in either direction under different circumstances CO2 + H2O <—> H2CO3 ←→ HCO3- + H+. Follow the law of mass action: the move away from reactants or products that are building up to products or reactants with less quantity

. Catalysts: substances that temporarily bind to reactants and hold them in a favorable position to react with each other, and they can change the shape of reactants to make the reaction more likely. speeds up the reaction and can then be used again because it is neither a reactant or product in the reaction

______ are often found in biological systems

enzymes

Compounds that dissociate into ions in water are _______

ELECTROLYTES

when ions dissociate, how dose water orient around them

The partially positive H’s make a bubble around the negative ion

The partially negative O’s make a bubble around the positive ion

dose water dissociate or dissovle/disperse

suagr

dissovle/disperse can not break non ionic bonds but can still make a hydration sphere/shell

cation is

anion is

+
-

What kind of compunds/bonds dissociate in water to release into ions in water

ionic compounds with ionic bonds; salts

bases in OH-

acids inc H+

examples of ionic compounds

NaCL

KI

CaCl2

Na2SO4

what happens when acids and bases are put into water

they dissociate into ions

acids let off H+ HCL —> H+ + Cl+

bases let off OH- NaOH —> Na+ + OH-

hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions combine to form

water H2O

water naturally dissociates into __ and _ ions and how much of each

1×1^-7 M of hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions

if just left in a cup

neutral pH

acids and bases combine to form__ and ___

Salts and water

Because the H+ and OH- make water

HCL + NaOH —> NaCl + H2O

neturalizaion

Water dissociates into what 2 ions

hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions

H20 —> H+ + OH-

concentration of H+ and OH- in..

water

acidic solutions

basic solution

water: H+=OH-

acidic solutions: H+>OH- (more H+)

basic solutions H+<OH- (less H+)

pH =

- log [H+]

pH of

saliva

upper stomach

lower stomach

duodenum

small intestine

large intestine

blood

saliva: 6.5-7.5

upper stomach 4-6.5

lower stomach 1.5-4

duodenum: 7-8.5

small intestine: 4-7

large intestine: 4-7

blood: 7.4

how can we have diffent pH/s in out bodies

because we have tissues that can be protective and help acidic environments (stomach)

what dose alka seltzer ehlp with and how

acid reflux when stomach is too acidic

helps because it neutralizes pH in the stomach because it has a weak base sodium bicarbonate which acts as a buffer

atomic numer =

atomic mass=

protons

protons + neutrons