Unit 4 AP Psych

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of behavior or events.

Dispositional Attributions

Attributing behavior to internal traits, such as personality or intelligence.

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to external factors, like environment or circumstances.

Explanatory Style

A person’s habitual way of explaining events, either in a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) manner.

Actor/Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes while attributing our own behavior to external factors.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational influences when explaining others’ behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to credit success to internal factors and blame failures on external factors.

Internal Locus of Control

Believing that one’s actions directly influence outcomes.

External Locus of Control

Believing that external forces, like luck or fate, determine outcomes.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to something increases our liking of it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When expectations about a person or situation cause that expectation to come true.

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself in relation to others to determine social and personal worth.

Relative Deprivation

The perception of being worse off compared to others, leading to dissatisfaction.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Prejudice

A negative attitude towards a group based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of individuals based on group membership.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs or feelings that influence behavior.

Just World Phenomenon

The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to see members of other groups as more similar to each other than they really are.

In-Group Bias

Favoring one’s own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and interpret information in ways that confirm existing beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort felt when holding conflicting thoughts or beliefs.

Norms

Socially accepted rules for behavior.

Social Influence Theory

The idea that people conform either to gain approval (normative) or because they believe others know better (informational).

Persuasion

Persuasion occurs through logical argument (central route) or superficial cues (peripheral route).

Halo Effect

The tendency to let an overall impression of a person influence specific judgments about them.

Foot-in-the-Door

A persuasion technique where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger one later.

Door-in-the-Face

A persuasion technique where making a large request first increases the chances of agreeing to a smaller request afterward.

Conformity

Adjusting one’s behavior to align with group norms.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

Individualism

Prioritizing personal goals and independence over group needs.

Collectivism

Prioritizing group goals and interdependence over individual needs.

Multiculturalism

Valuing and respecting cultural diversity within a society.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to amplify the group's existing opinions.

Groupthink

A group’s desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making by suppressing dissent.

Diffusion of Responsibility

When individuals in a group feel less personally accountable for taking action.

Social Loafing

People exerting less effort in a group than they would alone.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and self-restraint in group settings, often leading to impulsive behavior.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how much others agree with our opinions.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation among groups to achieve.

Social Traps

Situations where individuals act in their own self-interest, leading to negative outcomes for the group.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

The study of human behavior in workplace settings.

Altruism

Helping others selflessly without expecting anything in return.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will return favors.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that individuals will help those who are dependent on them.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for people to be less likely to help when others are present.

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

Freud’s theory that personality is shaped by unconscious desires and conflicts.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Psychological strategies used to protect oneself from anxiety.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a less threatening target.

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others.

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors with logical but false reasons.

Reaction Formation

Acting opposite to one’s true feelings.

Regression

Reverting to childlike behaviors in stressful situations.

Repression

Pushing distressing memories out of awareness.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Projective Tests

Personality assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts (e.g., Rorschach inkblot test).

Humanistic Theory of Personality

Focuses on self-growth and personal fulfillment.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting and valuing a person without conditions.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The drive to reach one’s full potential.

Social Cognitive Theory of Personality

Emphasizes the role of environment, cognition, and behavior in personality development.

Reciprocal Determinism

The idea that behavior, personal factors, and environment interact and influence each other.

Self-Concept

An individual’s perception of themselves.

Self-Efficacy

Confidence in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-Esteem

One’s overall sense of self-worth.

Trait Theory of Personality

Suggests that personality is made up of stable traits.

Big Five

A model of personality that includes agreeableness, openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability.

Motivation

The drive to achieve goals or satisfy needs.

Drive Reduction Theory

Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce biological drives (e.g., hunger, thirst).

Arousal Theory

People seek optimal levels of arousal for performance.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance is best at moderate levels of arousal.

Self-Determination Theory

Suggests that motivation is driven by autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something for its own sake, rather than external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for external rewards or consequences.

Incentive Theory

Behavior is motivated by external rewards.

Instincts

Innate biological behaviors that promote survival.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

Describes how conflicting motivations influence decision-making.

Sensation Seeking Theory

People vary in their need for novel and intense experiences.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates hunger by signaling fullness.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' that regulates hormones.

Emotion

A complex response involving physiological arousal, behavior, and cognition.

Theories of Emotion

Various explanations of how emotions are experienced and expressed.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions can influence emotions.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

Positive emotions expand thinking and build personal resources.

Universal Emotions

Basic emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness, fear) recognized across cultures.