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who was Alfred Binet and what did he do?
A French psychologist that developed the first intelligence test for a school that wanted to see which kids needed special attention. His tests were used to further arguments about white superiority in the US.
what is ethnicity (as defined in the book)
Group identities based on notions of similar and shared history, culture and kinship.
Eugenics
eugenics was the idea that there were certain traits that were negative and tried to breed out of the population (similar to selective breeding but for humans)
Examples of shifts in racial classification and the reasons behind them
The Irish became classified as white only after they used their political power to put down the black community in order to push blacks out of their jobs amd neighborhoods.
who was H. H. Goodard?
took the IQ test that was developed by Binet and brought it to Ellis Island in order to check the intelligence of new coming immigrants. He also used this test to further solidify the idea that immigrants were of low intelligence because they scored bad on these tests, but it was mostly because they could not understand English.
Intersectionality
an analytic framework for assessing how factors such as race, gender, and class interact to shape individual life chances and societal patterns of stratification. In simple terms, we must see how these three factors shape how a person may get marginalized against.
what are some examples of Pseudoscientific arguments used to try to justify white superiority?
The argument that Samuel George Morton made when he inaccurately sized skulls from different racial groups and concluded the size determined intelligence. He concluded that the bigger the skull, the more smart and that it was based on race.
what are some examples of Pseudoscientific typologies favoring whites?
examples include from Josephus Arthurs de Gobineu who claimed that there were 3 races; white, yellow, black. Also claimed that the dominance or lack there of was due to someone being in these racial categories.
-Another example is Carolus Linnaeus depiction of four races. Depicted Americanus (Native Americans) as "reddish, choleric...obstinate, merry, free;...regulated by customs". Africanus (Black) were seen as: "Black, phlegmatic [i.e., reserved/introverted, stoic], relaxed; women without shame,...crafty, indolent [lazy], negligent, governed by caprice [greed]". Asiaticus (Asian) were "Black hair, dark eyes,...haughty,...ruled by opinions." And finally Europaenus (White) were "sanguine [optimistic, positive], muscular; inventive; governed by laws."
what is our textbook definition of Race?
A group of people who share physical and cultural traits as well as common ancestry
what were some examples of Racial differences in forced sterilizations
the racial differences in forced sterilizations showed that many black and latinos were disproportionally affected by these procedures. Nazi's took inspiration for their sterilizations based on California Laws.
what is our textbook definition of Racism?
the belief that races are populations whose physical differences are linked to significant cultural and social differences within a hierarchy and the practice of races being inferior/superior to others.
what is Social construction?
an idea or a phenomenon that does not exist in nature but is created and given meaning by people.
what was The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882?
barred Chinese labors from coming to the US for over 60 years to deduce competitions from white laborers.
what was The Dawes Act (1887)?
Forced natives to give up their communal lands (living in tribes) and have individual property. Government gave natives specific plots of land in order to try having them adapt to a more european lifestyle. In order for Natives to be considered citizens, they must accept this decision of land.
what was The discovery doctrine (and its role in colonialism)?
Doctrine was an international law that gave authorization to explores to claim terra nullius (inherited land) in the names of their countries that they were from.
what was The Immigration Act of 1917?
Barred Immigrants from the Asiatic Zone (India, Burma, the Malay States, Arabia and Afghanistan) to enter the United States. Contributed to the formation of the Border Patrol.
What was the Immigration Act of 1924?
Placed a quota on many many people from certain countries could obtain citizenship. This was a highly racialized process.
what were The Indian Appropriations Acts of 1851 and 1871?
1851 created reservations and relocation of funds for the Native American tribes. 1871 Ended the practice of the US gov. signing treaties with Natives (to make appropriating the land easier)
what was The Pioneer Fund?
A fund that enforces the idea of eugenics and racial superiority. It was created in 1937
what was The Racial Integrity Act of 1924 (Virginia)?
Prohibited interracial marriage in order to prevent the intermixing of white and black blood.
what was The role of the courts in defining whiteness (through cases like Takao Ozawa v. United States (1922) and United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923))?
The courts defined whiteness through the case of Ozawa by not being white since he was not Caucasian, even tho he had light skin color. In Thind's case, they ruled he was not white due to his physical differences that distinguished him from white people, even though he was high on india's caste system.
What were some Ways in which colonists dissuaded people from disadvantaged groups from working together?
they did so by inducing fear and punishment to the people that would help for examples slaves escaping, creating a divide between social classes, and implementing racist laws that would force tension between communities.
13th Amendment
Prisons could lease convicts to the highest bidder via convict-lease programs due to this loophole.
“Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.”
Allostatic load
the accumulation of physiological perturbations as a result of repeated or chronic stressors in daily life (i.e., the wear and tear on the body caused by stress)
Black Lives Matter
2013- Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi start the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter after George Zimmerman kills unarmed teenager Trayvon Martin but is acquitted of all charges. The movement called attention to a number of police-related deaths including those of George Floyd, Eric Garner, Michael Brown, Walter Scott, Freddie Gray, and Sandra Bland.
Cumulative disadvantage perspective
used to explain the increasing divergence between Black and White health outcomes that focuses on how disadvantages accumulate over the life course
Dissimilarity index
measures the evenness with which two mutually exclusive groups (often racial groups) are distributed across the geographic units that make up a larger geographic entity.
Drapetomania and Dysaethesia Aethiopica
Drapetomania- In 1851, Dr. Samuel Adolphus Cartwright published an article that addressed “drapetomania,” or the “disease causing negroes to run away.”
Dysaethesia Aethiopica- the psuedoscience of why slaves are lazy
Environmental racism (understand how we know that it’s racism and not just classism)
institutional policies and practices that differentially affect the health outcomes or living conditions of people and communities based on race or color.
African Americans are more likely to live near a coal-fired power plant or in a neighborhood near a hazardous waste facility.
¾ of the largest hazardous waste landfills are in majority-Black areas
Fair Housing Act
¢Despite the passage of the Fair Housing Act (in 1968), Black people are 2.7 times more likely than Whites to be denied mortgages. When they are approved for home loans, they pay 0.54% higher interest rates than Whites (equating to tens of thousands of dollars more over the life of the loans).
FHA loans (know how they contributed to wealth inequality through housing)
The FHA used color-coded maps created by the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation to decide which areas to allow loans in.
Areas where people of color primarily lived were colored red and excluded from the loan insurance program as too risky to invest in (redlining).
Only 2% of FHA-underwritten loans from 1945-1959 went to Black families.
Hypersegregation
occurs when a racial group is highly concentrated in one place (e.g., African Americans in some urban neighborhoods, Native Americans on reservations)
Isolation index
measures the difference between neighborhood demographics and citywide demographics (e.g., if Hispanic people live in neighborhoods that are 50% Hispanic and a city is 30% Hispanic, then the isolation index = 20%)
John Henryism (style of coping) and its impact on health
characterized by projecting strength, being preoccupied with success, and driving oneself toward specific goals at the expense of health
Medical experimentation and race
Dr. Thomas Hamilton used slaves for medical experimentation, seeking to discover how deep Black skin goes, the effects of bleeding, and how to cure sunstroke which he made a profit from.
Dr. Sims became known as the father of gynecology after becoming the first person to successfully repair a vesico-vaginal fistula. He perfected the technique by subjecting female slaves to numerous operations (some public) without anesthesia.
Thomas Jefferson was a major proponent of smallpox vaccinations, but, to be sure of their safety and efficacy, he first tested cowpox vaccines on slaves and exposed them to live strains of smallpox to see how they fared.
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act
under President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1968 demonstrated that being tough on crime was politically popular and led to tougher policies.
Predatory Lenders (know examples and what makes them predatory)
¢offered loans to Black people with excessive fees and high interest rates (e.g., pawnshops, payday lenders, check cashing services)
Race and mass incarceration (know the relative differences in incarceration rates by race)
Blacks- 13% of the population, 30% of the imprisoned
Black men are 7x as likely as White men to be incarcerated. Black people are 5x more likely than Whites to be arrested for drug crimes even though more Whites use drugs. Blacks are statistically more likely to go to prison over the course of their lives than to get a bachelor’s degree or join the military.
Hispanics- 18% of the population, 22% of the imprisoned
Race and the war on drugs (know how the war on drugs exacerbated racial difference in
imprisonment)
Black people are 5 times more likely than Whites to be arrested for drug crimes even though 5 times as many Whites use drugs as Blacks
Police officers, relying on stereotypes about Black drug use and having easier access to where Black people more frequently sold (open-air markets) than where Whites sold (indoors), targeted Blacks more frequently
Race and wealth inequality (
¢For every $1.00 of wealth that White people own, Black and Latino people own $0.09.
Racial profiling
using race and ethnicity as grounds for suspicion
Redlining
Areas where people of color primarily lived were colored red and excluded from the loan insurance program as too risky to invest in
Residential segregation (know the major factors contributing to it and how they contributed to it
(violence, racially restrictive covenants, federal housing programs/policies)
White people broke windows, burned crosses in people’s lawns, and joined organized mobs to drive Blacks away from White neighborhoods.
Housing contracts stipulated that homes in White neighborhoods could not be sold or leased to non-White people, and the National Association of Real Estate Boards incorporated similar language into its guidelines.
Blockbusting- selling a home in a White neighborhood to a Black person, telling White people the neighborhood is “turning” to get them to sell cheap, buying the homes, and then selling them at a profit to other Black people
Steering- only showing White people homes in White neighborhoods, Black people homes in Black neighborhoods, etc.
Sentence disparities between crack and powdered cocaine and why this matters in terms of race difference in incarceration
¢From 1986-2006, more than 80% of people sentenced to prison for crack cocaine were Black, and Black people are 21% more likely than White people to receive a mandatory minimum sentence when facing an eligible charge.
Shapiro, Meschede, and Osoro- know the five factors they identify as contributing to the racial
wealth gap now and their relative importance
1)Years of homeownership (27%)
2)Household income (20%)
3)Years of unemployment (9%)
4)College education (5%)
5)Inheritances or financial support from family membership (5%)
Special Field Order No. 15
General William Sherman issues Special Field Order No. 15 and lets former slaves occupy 40 acres of former-Confederate land in Florida and South Carolina. (President Johnson removes the families and returns the land to its former owners.)
Subprime loans
high-interest loans extended to people with a high risk of defaulting (Black and Hispanic families were almost 2x as likely as White families to get a subprime loan, and, by 2009, 15% of subprime loans were in foreclosure.)
The Freedman’s Bureau (know why it was created and why it failed)
Congress establishes the Freedman’s Bureau and the Freedman’s Bank to help freed slaves achieve financial independence, but they also need land.
The Hispanic Paradox
Hispanic Americans live several years longer than white Americans on average, despite having far less income and health care and higher rates of diabetes and obesity.
The “new Jim Crow”
the disproportionate percentage of black and brown people in the prison system
The prison-industrial complex
The vast network of prisons, jails, courts, police officers, etc. ostensibly designed to reduce crime
The Southern Homestead Act (SHA)
1866- 46 million acres of land are allocated for families (including Black families) in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi (but much of it was not actually farmable)
US wealth inequality
top elite is 85% of population
middle class is 11%
poverty is 4%
Weathering hypothesis
used to explain the increasing divergence between Black and White health outcomes that focuses on how constant exposure to stress accelerates health decline for Black people
Colorism
an be defined as a type of racial stratification where darker skin tone can be seen as inferior even within the same ethnic group. There are different origins of colorism all throughout the world, since many cultures at least had some source of hierarchy due to their skin color.
Skin tone stratification
is a system in which resources such as income and status are distributed unequally according to skin color.
Pigmentocracy
a society in which Black, Asians, latinos have all different social statuses.
Counterspeech
•Humor- used to deescalate contentious situations
•Warning of Consequences- used to remind people that hate speech can have consequences and be seen by family and friends
•Empathy- used to humanize victims of hate speech and remind people that engaging in hate speech can hurt others
Critical race theory
centers around the voice of people of color. CRT originated in legal scholarships mostly found in law school. It’s main point states that racism in America is apart of American life and history, and race is not objective.
Cultural appropriation
Can be described as the improper appropriation of culture customs and ideas by the dominant group within the area. One prime example is when white people wear dreadlocks and cornrows to mimic the appearance of Black hairstyles. Another uprising of cultural appropriation that is happening recently would be the use of makeup to appear more Asian.
Domination vs. hegemony
Domination is best explained as the direct rule by coercion
Hegemony: rule by coercion and consent, most notable with the carrot on a stick method.
One is done by force yet the other is shown to have benefits embedded in
Doxxing and race
Doxxing: revealing one’s personal information (home address, phone number, social security…etc) for the purpose of public humiliation and or condemnation.
•34% of Jewish gamers reported harassment based on their identity
•31% of Latino gamers reported harassment based on their identity
•30% of Muslim gamers reported harassment based on their identity
Examples of racism in the U.S. Constitution (the 3/5ths Clause, the Fugitive Slave Clause)
3/5ths Compromise was used in order to determine the total population in the highly satirized slave states. It was implemented because the slave states argued they should have more representation due to their population density, yet those slaves would not be represented since they did not have the same rights as white people.
Examples of anti-racist social media campaigns
#OscarSsoWhite- referring to when the winners of the Oscar’s al seemed to be hire people and not many that won were people of color (2015)
#CiteBlackWomen- seeks to advocate the contribution that black women had contributed to the academic world
Gaming while black
used to refer to Black Gamers treatment. Typically they are more likely to experience racial slurs within the games and experience swatting and doxxing.
Institutional Racism
“policies, laws, and institutions that reproduce racial inequalities”
Race as a “master category”
a fundamental concept that has profoundly shaped, and continues to shape, the history, polity, economic structure, and culture of the United States.”
Racial formation
the sociohistorical process by which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed.”
Racial microaggressions
daily, commonplace insults and racial slights that cumulatively affect the psychological well-being of people of color
Racial projects
simultaneously an interpretation, representation, or explanation of racial dynamics, and an effort to reorganize and redistribute resources”
Racialized social systems
societies in which economic, political, social, and ideological levels are partially structured by the placement of actors in racial categories or races”
Racism in the media
Blacks- Can be portrayed like “guides'' for the white characters, like a crutch. They are portrayed as lazy, stupid, loud thieving or dishonest. Black women often had the mammies (maids, jolly, dark skinned, large), Sapphires (angry black women who were sassy and played up negative stereotypes about black men) and Jezebels (hypersexual, always having children).
Latinos- described as gangbangers, janitors, landscapers, exotic lovers. Women are hypersexualized like maids and hot blooded. Older women are seen are wise abuelitas or tias
Arabs- oil rich billionaires or terrorists
Asians- men are sinister, asexual effeminate, women are seen as dragon ladies (cold, calculating, oversexualized) or butterflies (passive, selfless, submissive, eager to please, dainty)
Native Americans- shown as primitive, savages, spiritual. Men are seen as the erotic lovers of the white women and women are depicted as princesses or lustful savages.
Settler colonialism perspective (e.g., Andrea Smith’s work)
Three pillars for white supremacy : anit-black racism, genocide, orientalism
skin tone as authenticity marker (know the distinction in some ethnic groups between preference for lightness vs. preference for whiteness)
Lighter-skinned people in Africa occupy more positions of power and have more economic resources in Africa, and skin bleaching is common in some places (with rates as high as 75% in Lagos, Nigeria)
The Model Minority stereotype
Depicts Asian Americans as universally polite, rich, successful, and super smart due to the nature of their culture and race. They are typically seen as med students or pre-law.
The White Racial Frame
includes not only racist prejudices and stereotypes of conventional analyses, but also racist ideologies, narratives, images, and emotions, as well as individual and group inclinations to discriminate shaped by the other features.”
intersectionality
Simultaneous look as various forms of oppression (race, gender, social class)
Islamophobia
Systemic marginal action of Muslims and has operated as a form of racism (even though not all Muslims are Arabs and not all Arabs are Muslims).
Structural racism
interinstitutional interactions across time and space that reproduce racial inequality
Systemic Racism
“diverse assortment of tacit practices that promote resource inequalities, and white-racist ideologies that are used to preserve white advantage and power”
Brown v. Board of Education
Dealt a major blow to the doctrine of “separate but equal” and resulted in a unanimous verdict by the Supreme Court to end school segregation. The verdict (a unanimous ruling against segregated schools) was partially a product of arguments about the harm caused to black children by such schools.
Del Rio v. Salvatierra
The Texas Supreme Court ruled in favor of separate school systems for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics, preserving segregation. (However, it would later be overturned by Delgado v. Bastrop ISD.
Dowell v. Oklahoma City
Because of the previous court rulings in SWANN V. CHARLOTTE-MECKLENBERG BOARD OF EDUCATION established more desegregation scrutiny, however schools quickly started to resegregate which is the concern that was brought forth by the Dowell case. The Texas Supreme Court ruled in favor of separate school systems for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics, preserving segregation. (However, it would later be overturned by Delgado v. Bastrop ISD.
Earnings gap
difference in annual earnings among groups
Factors that contribute to educational inequality
Parental income (Family income explains about 1/3 of the test score gap between Black people and White people. Family income explains almost all of the differences in college completion rates between Black people and White people), parental education (Children with parents who have college degrees are much more likely to attend college than children who do not have parents with college degrees.
Forms of whitening (intergenerational, social, and cultural)-
1) intergenerational whitening (e.g., having children with lighter-skinned people to have lighter offspring)
2) social whitening (e.g., when things like class status and wealth makes one considered White or whiter due to class status)
3) cultural whitening (e.g., when someone acculturates and then is seen as White or whiter than before)
Human capital
(e.g., educational attainment, skills, and job experience) accounts for most of the earnings gap between racial groups, but about 10%-20% can’t and is argued by many scholars to be the part attributable to racial discrimination.
Implicit bias
unreasoned judgmental inclinations that operate without our conscious awareness
Piper v. Big Pine School District of Inyo County-
A 15-year-old Native American girl denied entry into her local public school was allowed to attend after the CA Supreme Court ruled in her favor, legally ending segregation in California schools
Indian Schools
Under colonialism, Native American children typically learned in boarding schools (inside or outside of the reservation) or in day schools on the reservation.
Mendez v. Westminster
Parents of families told to go to school at a separate facility for Mexican Americans sued in California. Since Mexicans were considered legally white, they sued based on ancestry discrimination and discrimination based on supposed “language deficiency” The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that it is unconstitutional to segregate on the basis of a Spanish surname, setting important an important precedent for Brown v. Board of Education.
Occupational culture thesis-
Anthropologists Signithia Fordham and John Ogbu argued that African American children don’t do well in school, because they equate school success with “acting White.”
African American children have responded to discrimination by developing an identity in opposition to dominant White culture (which means that they develop an identity in opposition to school success).
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
The University of California Davis Medical School used racial quotas to account for their lack of minority medical students, setting 16 spots out of 100 aside for underrepresented minority students. The Supreme Court struck down racial quotas as violating the Equal Protection Clause but did allow for race to be used as one factor in determining admission.
Shifts in U.S. Census Race Categories (know how Hispanics/Latinos and North Africans and
Middle Easterners have been racially classified)
latinos, north africans and middle easterners have now been classified as white however it still provides problems such as still experiencing racial discrimination and not be taken as seriously due to their classification.
Skills mismatch hypothesis
African American men had skills that were required by past industries but were not as well-suited to recent economic changes
Spatial mismatch hypothesis
African-American families were excluded from housing opportunities where most job growth occurred, leaving them in areas of concentrated poverty
Split labor market
occurs when there is a difference in the price of labor for two or more groups of laborers
Symbolic violence
The dominant culture tries to establish its norms, tastes and preferences as superior to other groups’
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
Although Brown v. Board of Education brought down the underpinnings of segregation in schools by striking down the “separate but equal” doctrine, desegregation happened slowly or hardly at all in many parts of the South.
•The Supreme Court ruled that:
•1) desegregation plans would be judged by their effectiveness
•2) nearly exclusively Black schools required close scrutiny by the courts
•3) courts could use non-contiguous school zones to remedy discrimination
•4) no rigid guidelines could be established regarding busing
