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What are the 4 important aspects of goals?
They have cognitive representations (hierarchy)
They are future focused
People must be committed to goals and must be attainable
Goals can be approach and avoidance based
What are the 2 reasons that goals improve performance?
They help us focus on goal-relevant information and keep our attention away from goal-irrelevant information
They improve psychological wellbeing when achieved and even when not achieved because we like progress
Goals come from 3 aspects
Needs: deficits make us exert behavior
Demands: pressure from ourselves and environment can exert behavior , though self-set goals are better due to autonomy
Culture: provide framework of values that affect behavior
What is a goal hierarchy and name the 3 levels
It is a pyramid that represents broad goals to abstract goals
Higher order goals are distal long term goals that take multiple goal achievements to get
Goals are short term proximal goals that need to be achieved for higher order goals
Goal means are specific actions that need to be taken to achieve goals
What is goal systems theory
It states how goals are often interconnected in a large system, where goals underneath the same higher order goals are often interconnected and goal means under the same goals are interconnected.
What is Equifinality (Low/High)
It is how many means to achieve a goal. The more means there are to achieve a goal, the more flexible and easily achievable it is, therefore it is high equifinality.
What is Multifinality (Low/High)
It is how many goals can be achieved by one means. The more a means can achieve mutople goals at once, the higher multifinality that means have.
What is expectancy and value theory
It is that behaviour that leads to goals results from expectancy and value, where behaviour = expectancy x value (if one of them is 0 = the goal will not get achieved.
What are aspects that affect expectancy
the self-efficacy to perform the behaviour
the belief that the behaviour will produce positive outcomes
What can affect value
If the benefits of achieving the goal outweighs the costs, the more likely we will value the goal
Why do people tend to set difficult goals
Because they are associated with better performance and benefits, which make people want to exert more energy. However you expectancy must remain high as low expectancy leads to lower goal achievement.
How does specificity affect a goal outcome (aspects that make it good?)
The more specific a goal is , the more it can be achieved, this is beacause
it draws attention to what needs to be done
reduces the ambiguity of actions (goal means)
enables us to measure progress
vague goals are difficult to achieve in a lifetime
What are the joint effects of specificity and difficulty
The more specific and difficult a goal us, the better the motivation and performance, this lead to the creation of SMART goals.
What does the goal gradient hypothesis say about goal proximity
The more proximal a goal is , the more likely it will be achieved
What does the construal level theory suggest about proximity of goals
The more distal a goal is , the more abstract and unintangible it is which makes it harder to achieve. the more proximal a goal is, the more they are concrete and observable, meaning they are more likely to be achieved.
What are approach goals and where are they located
They are located in the behavioural activation system (BAS) in the left side of the frontal cortex, associated with rewards. It narrows peoples focus on actions that help achieve the outcome and is most successful in goal persistance
What are avoidance goals and where are they
they are located in the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) in the right side of the frontal lobe, associated with punishments. They narrow the focus on actions to avoid an outcome and is associated with inconsistent and chaotic behaviour.
What is goal commitment and what are they influenced by
It is the process by which we start to develop an intention to strive for a goal. it is influenced by
goal satisfaction ; how happy we will be once it is attained
goal investment: the more you invest, the more you will attain
goal alternatives: prescence of other goals in conflict with the focal goal
What are the strategies to boost goal commitment and which one is the best
Indulging: imagining positive outcome
Dwelling: thining about obstacles that prevent you from the outcome
Mental contrasting: indulging first then dwelling, shows you what needs to be improved (this is the best one)
State the 4 stages of the Rubicon Model
Pre-decisional phase: choosing a goal
Post-decisional phase: deciding how you will persue that goal (goal means)
Actional phase: engaging in goal directed behaviours
Post-actional phase: achieving or abandoning goal where you evaluate if it was worth it
What is an deliberative mindset
matches the pre-decisional phase where we are open minded to gaining as much info about the goal and weight the pros and cons of the goal
What is an implemental mindset
matches the actional phase where we are closed-minded, we select approaches that will lead to goal directed behaviours
Name the 4 goal conflicts
approach-approach
avoidance-avoidance
approach-avoidance
double approach-avoidance
What is an approach-approach goal
It is when there are 2 goals that have attractive aspects but you cannot pursue both
What is an avoidance-avoidance goal
It is when 2 goals have unnatractive aspects where you try to escape the situation
What is approach-avoidance
It is the most common where we find a goal has positive and negative aspects
What is a double approach avoidance
It is when 2 goals have both positive and negative aspects
What is goal shielding and strategies to combat
It is when a person will shield a focal goal by inhibiting goals that conflict with it.
highlighting: chose a goal of highest priority
balancing: alternate between achieving multiple goals
What is difference between Harmonious passion and Obsessive passion
Harmonius: When you can pursue a goal when you need to but also gracefully shift to other activities or goals
Obsessive: uncontrollable urge to pursue their goal and cannot switch it off if they want to focus on another activity or goal.
Why do most people tend to fail new years resolution plans
Because they tend to overlook the importance of goal planning
What is a better predictor than intentions on if a goal will be achieved?
Past behaviour better predicts intentions for future behaviours (poor habits will continue as poor habits etc..)
What is the Intention behavior gap? How can we avoid them
It is the disconnect between a persons intentions to achieve a goal and the actual actions they are doing
having high quality goals (SMART)
outcome simulation (Indulging)
What is the difference between outcome simulation and process simulation
Outcome simulation is when you fantasize what it will be like to achieve your goal (resembles self help books) where you focus on the destination
Process simulation is when you focus on the steps (means) to achieve the goal (you are focusing on the journey)
Why are Process simulations associated with better goal success?
it lowers anxiety as you can imagine steps to give more control
it forces you to develop a plan and anticipate problems
in contributes to more motivation and excitement since you are investing more in the plan
What did James Clear mean by “1% better everyday” and give an example from the Ted Talk
Small improvements everyday (1%) can unlock significant long term success (example of British cycling, where after 4 years they wen from underdog to the world champions)
According to James Clear, what are the 4 steps to long term improvement
Noticing : knowing existance of goal by marking it down
Wanting : taking action when you crave
Doing : doing something consistently instead of to perfection
Liking: making behaviours into habits , where our reward is the progress made
What are implementation intentions
Creating if-then plans that specify the exact behaviors that will be performed in a particular situation (When, where , how , how long, back up plan)
What is the difference between goal intentions and implementation intentions
goal intentions looks at the end point of a goal process, meanwhile implementation intentions focuses on what will be done to achieve the goal. Implementing both aspects are good for goal success
What are the benefits to implementation intentions
It helps initiate goals
helps with goal persistance (less distraction)
hepl with overiding old habits and creating new ones
Help controlling inner states
closes intention and behaviour gaps
makes mental links between situation and behaviour
What are the costs of implementation intentions
You become less attentive to other ways a goal can be achieved
It makes it hard to detect bad goals and abandon them
What is goal commitment to implementation intentions?
Goal commitment acts as a moderator for implementation intentions and goal success, the more goal commitment , the more likely a goal will be successful
What is the relationship between self efficacy and implementation intentions
The more self efficacy you have based on past goal achievement , the more likely implementation intentions benefit you
What is the relationship between self control and implementation intentions
implementation intentions allow for better self control as you can better plan what actions need to be done.
How does flexibility improve goal plans
The more flexible a goal is , the more we have a sense of autonomy over it, which allows us to better achieve it
What is the what-the hell effect
It occurs when a goal lacks flexibility , where once we make a mistake , we are likely to give up and abandon the goal
How does accountability improve goal plans and what are ways to show accountability
The more accountable the plan is , the more you can recognize if you are meeting or failing to meet expectations.
What are some ways we can increase accountability
writing down the goal plan
telling someone close to you about it so it makes you avoid embarassement when you dont do what you said you would.
Name the 3 common mistakes in goal planning
planning fallacy
perceived expertise
Loss aversion
What is a planning Fallacy and provide an example
It is the tendancy of getting overly optemistic about a plan
Saying you can knock a paper down in a few hours but end up taking all night
How can we avoid planning fallacies
rely on someone elses estimate
relfect on past experiences
imagine goal belongs to someone else
use implementation intentions
breaking up goal into smaller pieces
What is perceived expertise
thinking you’re an expert doesn’t make you one (the more you consider yourself an expert, the less likely you are open to learning and can worsen goal plans)
What is loss aversion
It is when one bad thing happens (since we like avoiding losses) makes you want to sabotage the whole goal plan in the first place (to reduce likelyhood of loss another time)
What is a simulation heuristic
tendency to judge likelihood of event by how easily it can be simulated in our minds, they come in “If only” statements
What is counterfactual thinking and name the 2 types
It is imagining alternative ways things could have turned out
upwards
downwards
What is upwards counterfactual thinking
It occurs when you have an unexpected failure, where you think about how things could have ended up better
What is downward counterfactual thinking
It occurs when you have an unexpected success, where you think about how things could have ended up worse
What aspect of the rubicon model is goal striving associated with?
It is associated with the actional phase where we use intentional mindsets to pursue a goal, this ends in goal achievement or abandonment
What is self regulation and what aspects does it rely on
It is our ability to control our impulses and alter responses, it relies on standards, monitoring and strength
What are standards and our types of selves
They are ideas on how things should be , comparing ourselves to standards allow us to see what we should be
ideal self: what we want to become in the future (approach goals)
undesired self: what we fear of becoming in the future (avoidance goals)
ought self: what we need to become based on duties and obligations
What was Higgins self discrepancy theory
He stated that we will feel dejection emotions (depression and disappointment) when our actual self is far from ideal self, and agitation emotions (anxiety and guilt) when our actual self is far from our ought seld
What is regulatory focus and name the two types
It is the tendancy to frame our goals into ideal and ought terms
Promotion oriented
prevention oriented
What is a promotion oriented person
They are concerned with their ideal self where they want to accomplish aspirations, their goals tend to be ideals, and they are more eager to pursue and focus more on their consistency and quantity of responses.
What is an Prevention oriented person
They are concerned with their ought self, where thy want security and responsibility, their goals tend to be obligations, they are more vigilant where they don’t want to make mistakes, and they focus on perfection (quality of responses)
What is regulatory fit
It is when someones regulatory focus fits a task at hand , which increases performance
What are the cultural differences for regulatory focus
Western = promotion orientation
Eastern = prevention orientation
What is self awareness theory
It is when our actual self is not living up to our standards where we have a tendancy to reduce discrepancy (distance). It produces negative emotions that lead people to want to make changes
How do people try to avoid self awareness
We engage in self destructuve behaviours
What is Monitoring
it is keeping track of behaviours that we are trying to regulate in accordance with standards
What is regulatory monitoring
It is the way we monitor our actions via a feedback loop (the tote model)
Describe the tote model and each aspect
Test: compare your actual self to desired self
operate: reduce discrepancy between the two
Test: compare actual self and desired self again (if there is still a discrepancy , return back to operate)
Exit: discrepancy eliminated because goal was achieved or abandoned
What are the benefits of monitoring
It can increase you goal attention , helps you notice bad goal plans and adjust them and it allows you to measure your progress
What is the delay of gratification
It is the phenomenon where we are able to chose long term rewards and sacrifice short term goals
List ways to improve delay of gratification
Out of sight our of mind: turning away from temptation to not think about it
Turn down the heat: find negative aspects of the temptation in order to trick yourself into not wanting it
What does the limited rescource model state about self control
It states that self control is a limited rescource that many things tap into , it can deplete.
What is inhibitory insanity/ego depletion
It is when exerting self control in one domain reduces your self control in another domaine
What was Baumesiters experiment with the limited rescource model
He asked students to skip breakfast and come do an anagram tasks, they were presented with radishes or cookies to snack on. Those who exerted self control to eat the healthier radishes had less patience and self control to finish the anagram problems
How can you avoid self control failures
Plan day with depletion in mind (avoid temptations at end of the dday and give small breaks)
Avoid taking too many goals at once (because all tap into the resource
Create a habit (habits automize actions)
Avoid all out bans
What is thought supression rebound
It is the phenomenon where once you do an all out ban of something, its all you can think about
What are the 2 reasons people fail to disengage in goals?
threaten to self esteem
sunk cost effect: when you feel as if you invested too many rescources to stop
In which parts of the brain is associated with goal setting
lateral prefrontal cortex is associated with remembering a goal
medial prefrontal cortex is activated when people reflect on goals
In which part of the brain is associated with goal planning
The premotor cortex prepares for action
In which parts of the brain is associated with goal striving
dorsal anterior cingulated cortex detects discrepancies of actual and desired self
premotor cortex, motor cortex and basal ganglia regulate behaviour that comes with discrepancies
prefrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus regulate self control
What is an emotion (latin meaning)
It derives from the term emovere , which means to move, emotions move us towards certain actions and take time to feel conscious of them
What is an affect
It is an unconsious emotion (intuition) where you feel towards something
What is a mood
It is an generalized affective state caused by nothing whatsoever
What is the common sense approach to feeling emotions
When you sense a stimuli, you feel an emotion which propels a behaviour
What is the James Lange theory on emotions
When you see a stimulus, it activates the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system to cause a behaviour, your emotion then comes as an interpretation of the action
Give the supports to James Langes theory and give examples
embodied cognitions: physical changes make us think or behave differently
Walter white wearing sunglasses makes him feel bad
embodied emotions: physical changes make us feel a different emotion
feeling guilt being washed away in certain religious ceremonies
What are some of the critics to James Lange’s theory
We feel emotions faster than the physiological changes can occur
little evidence that bodily changes can produce specific emotions
What is the Facial feedback hypothesis and the pen experiment
It states that if we change the muscles in our face, we will feel specific emotions
in the pen experiment, people who held a pen in their mouth muscles that was associated with smiling found a funny tv show most enjoyable
How can botox affect the way we feel emotions
botox tends to paralyse the facial muscles making us unable to contract them and feel emotion
What is the Cannon bard theory
When you see a stimulus, it activates the thalamus which sends a message to hypothalamus to trigger emotion and autonomic nervous system to have a behavioural response simultaneously
What is the Schacter Singer cognitive labelling theory
It is a cognitive perspective where we see a stimulus, it activates a physdiological arousal that produces a behaviour, then a cognitive label that produces an emotion
What is the missatribution of arousal
It is being tricked into feeling a particular emotion when an arousal is unexplained
What was Shacter and Singers experiment with the missatribution of arousal
They gave a medicine placebo that causes numbing and itchiness. They told the informed group the real effects, misinformed group about fake effects and did not tell anything to the uninformed group. They found that the informed and misinformed groups reported most positive effects
How does misatribution of arousal happen for romantic attraction (Dutton) and panic attacks
We may feel we like someone more if we are doing fun and exciting tasks on a first date. Dutton found that men who were approached by a woman in the more exciting location were more likely to call her back later.
Panic attacks can be missatributed since they happen so quickly , it is difficult to attribute what caused the panic attack
What was Lazarus Appraisal theory
a stimulus activates either a primary or secondary appraisal which causes an arousal then a behaviour. In this case cognition precedes arousal
Primary appraisal: evaluating if stimuli is good or bad (or irrelevant wont cause emotion)
Secondary appraisal: evaluating if you can cope with the consequence of event
What did the Triune Model of the brain state
We have 3 brains
Reptilian: oldest one associated with fight or flight mode
Mammalian: emotions and certain parts of memory
Primate : involved in abstract thinking and problem solving
What are the 3 aspects of core emotions
they must be innate
they must be expressed in distinct ways
they must be universal
What did Ekman find about the 6 core emotions (Facial action coding system)
He was able to name 6 core emotions based on their distinct facial features and found that thery were universal
the FACS was a dictionary of expressions linked to emotions
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