Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Flashcards covering introductory fundamentals of human anatomy and physiology, including organ systems, macromolecules, anatomical terminology, body cavities, feedback mechanisms, and diagnostic methods.

What is the literal translation and formal definition of anatomy?

Anatomy literally translates to "to cut up" and is defined as the scientific study of body structures and structural relationships.

How is physiology defined, and what scientific principles does it utilize?

Physiology is the study of body functions, utilizing principles of physics and chemistry to explain internal mechanical and chemical processes.

What is the key difference between gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy (histology)?

Gross anatomy is the study of anatomical structures visible to the unaided eye, while microscopic anatomy (histology) is the study of microscopic structures, cells, and tissues using specialized staining techniques and microscopes.

What responsibilities do Histological Technicians (Histotechs) have in clinical settings?

Histotechs receive, stain, and screen tissue samples (such as biopsies and Pap smears) under microscopes to identify cancer and various pathologies.

How do regional anatomy and systemic anatomy differ in their approach?

Regional anatomy focuses on all structures within a specific geographic region of the body (e.g., muscles and nerves of the neck), whereas systemic anatomy focuses on the 12 distinct organ systems found in animals.

What is the examination schedule for Exams 1 through 4 in this course?

Exam 1 is administered during Week 5; Exam 2 during Week 8 or 9; Exam 3 during Week 11 or 12; and Exam 4 during Week 15.

What testing formats are used for examinations in this course?

Examinations are delivered strictly on paper using Scantron forms and written response sections, with no computer-based testing.

What three written response topics are required on Exam 1?

The written section requires identification of the four primary macromolecules (building blocks and functions), all 12 organ systems (structural components and functions), and specific vocabulary definitions (including anatomical position).

What are the building blocks and key functions of proteins?

Proteins are composed of amino acid monomers. Their functions include catalysis (enzymatic reactions), structural defense of the body, cellular communication, and molecular transport.

What are the building blocks and primary functions of nucleic acids?

Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers (DNA and RNA). Their primary functions are the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information.

What are the building blocks and functions of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units (simple sugars) and serve as the primary source of immediate cellular energy and structural cell markers.

What are the structural components and functions of lipids?

Lipids are composed of hydrophobic units of fatty acids and glycerol. Their functions include long-term energy storage, cellular membrane construction, and thermal insulation.

What structural components and functions define the integumentary system?

Components include the cutaneous membrane (skin), hair, cutaneous glands, and nails. Functions include encapsulation of internal organs, UV protection via melanin, Vitamin D synthesis, thermoregulation via sweat, and sensory perception.

At what age does red bone marrow convert into yellow bone marrow in long bones?

Red bone marrow converts into fatty yellow bone marrow in long bones around 5 years of age.

How many pairs of cranial and spinal nerves exist in the nervous system?

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

What terminology is used for gray matter aggregates inside versus outside the central nervous system?

Gray matter aggregates are called nuclei inside the central nervous system and ganglia outside the central nervous system.

Where is the pituitary gland located, and what is its primary physiological significance?

The pituitary gland is located within the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone and acts as the primary mind-body interface where mental states influence physiological functions.

What is the anatomical location and literal meaning of the adrenal glands?

Adrenal glands sit directly superior to ("upon") each kidney, where "ad-" means upon and "renal" means kidney.

What function do cardiovascular capillaries serve in nutrient exchange?

Capillaries act as perforated, "leaky" microscopic pipes designed to release nutrients and fluids into interstitial space while retaining red blood cells within circulation.

How does excess dissolved $CO_2$ impact blood pH in the respiratory system?

Excess dissolved $CO_2$ forms carbonic acid, which lowers systemic blood pH.

What are the distinct roles of the liver and gallbladder in the digestive system?

The liver synthesizes bile, while the gallbladder stores and injects bile into the small intestine.

What body position defines standard anatomical position?

An individual standing fully upright and erect, eyes and head facing directly forward, feet parallel and facing forward, arms down by the sides, and palms facing forward (outward) with thumbs pointing laterally away from the body.

How do supination and pronation of the forearm differ?

Supination is forearm rotation positioning the palms facing forward/outward, whereas pronation is forearm rotation flipping the palms backward/inward.

What is the difference between an anatomical plane and an anatomical section?

A section is a physical slice or cross-section through an internal three-dimensional structure yielding a two-dimensional view, whereas a plane is an imaginary flat surface passing through a structure or the entire body.

How do the frontal (coronal), midsagittal, and transverse body planes divide the body?

Frontal plane divides into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions; Midsagittal plane runs precisely down the midline dividing into equal right and left halves; Transverse plane divides horizontally into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) portions.

How are the directional terms proximal and distal defined?

Proximal means positioned closer to the point of attachment to the trunk, while distal means positioned further from the point of attachment to the trunk.

What regional anatomical terms correspond to the chin, cheek, neck, and posterior elbow?

Chin: Mental; Cheek: Buccal; Neck: Cervical; Posterior elbow: Olecranon.

What regional anatomical terms correspond to the upper arm, forearm, shin, and sole of the foot?

Upper arm: Brachial (Brachium); Forearm: Antebrachium; Shin: Crural; Sole of foot: Plantar.

How is the ventral body cavity divided, and what sub-cavities does it contain?

The ventral body cavity is divided by the muscular diaphragm into the superior thoracic cavity (containing pericardial and pleural cavities) and the inferior abdominopelvic cavity (containing abdominal and pelvic cavities).

How do serous membranes differ from mucous membranes?

Serous membranes line closed internal cavities (not open to exterior) and secrete friction-reducing serous fluid; mucous membranes line internal tracts that open to the exterior and contain goblet cells that secrete mucus to trap debris.

What are the 9 regions of the abdominopelvic grid layout?

Epigastric region, Umbilical region, Hypogastric region, Right and Left Hypochondriac regions, Right and Left Lumbar regions, and Right and Left Iliac regions.

How many distinct physiological processes are regulated by the hypothalamus?

The hypothalamus regulates over 10 distinct physiological processes, including autonomic nervous system control, thermoregulation, mating behavior, thirst, and appetite.

How do negative feedback loops differ from positive feedback loops?

Negative feedback opposes or inhibits the original stimulus to return the system toward baseline equilibrium, whereas positive feedback amplifies and promotes the original stimulus, driving the system further from baseline until a definitive outcome is achieved.

What is the difference between anabolism, catabolism, and metabolism?

Anabolism is metabolic synthesis combining simple compounds into complex structures (requires energy); Catabolism is breakdown of complex substances into simpler components (releases energy); Metabolism is the total sum of all chemical reactions in an organism.

How do inspection, palpation, and auscultation differ during clinical evaluation?

Inspection is visual assessment of body features; Palpation is applying manual pressure to feel surface and internal structures; Auscultation is listening to internal body sounds using a stethoscope.

What exact anatomical structures are connected by ligaments?

Ligaments specifically connect bone to bone.

What structural partition separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity?

The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.